The outline below is compiled and taken from John A. Garraty and Peter Gay, eds., The Columbia History of the World, 1972; and thus there is no present claim to originality in content or organization

In purpose, however, there is no explicit dependence on the above or other work; naturally, of course, I absorb and process existing thought, such as may have come to my attention

1.2 PURPOSES: HISTORY AS THE ‘STORY’ OF THOUGHT AND ACTION

To give a sense of the processes and forces involved with sufficient focus on:

Showing the interplay of ideas and action

Areas of consideration: religion, myth, art and literature; philosophy, humanities, and the study of history; technology, science, and mathematics; economic, exploration, commercial and trade; law, military and political; education, meaning, journey, and commitment

The general and the singular and their interplay in history and power

The general: populations that may be thought of as homogeneous for the purposes of the account, their processes and their interactions; patriarchalism

The singular: individuals and singular events or small focal groups of the same – especially those that are at focal points of history; charisma

Showing the dynamics without having to resort to explicit theory or concept; events and interactions will be selected to show the dynamics and trends as a picture… without requiring or denying any inference of pattern or predictability especially a principle of pattern or predictability that can be generalized to application to all history

An outline for History, a possible future work mentioned above

A framework for Journey in Being… especially the studies toward Journey in Being – see Design for a Journey in Being… for:

Philosophy

Knowledge; the academic disciplines

Influence – History, the present document, as a History of Influence

Being and its variety; Being and its Journey in Transformation

1.3 PERIODS

There was originally a section that characterized periods of history according to ‘sentiment’ e.g. the time from prehistory till 700 BC may have been labeled ‘myth,’ 700 BC to 300 AD ‘philosophy,’ 300 AD to 1500 AD ‘chaos,’ and 1500 AD till the present ‘exploration and science’

The intention was to use a suggestive character as a label. However, the labels are caricatures and the old system is abandoned

1.4 WHITEHEAD’S CONCEPT OF HISTORY

The source for this section is A. N. Whitehead, Adventures of Ideas, 1933

1.4.1 Relativity and focus

Whitehead emphasizes the commonplace acknowledgement of interpretation as relative and theoretical

He notes that Adventures of Ideas focuses on European History and its sources in Greek and Hebrew culture and civilization; the book is, in part, an attempt to identify the theoretical background of meaning and interpretation for the European tradition

1.4.2 History as interplay between ‘force’ and ‘inspiration’

[A special case of variation and selection]

Force is ‘blind’; inspiration includes ideas and criticism; no novelty is ever entirely novel: even within ‘force’ there is a constructive element

The history of civilization is the history (adventure) of ideas

Examples of force and ideas in European History: barbarians and Christianity; industrial revolution and democracy

Whitehead would put ‘barbarians’ in quotes for this designation is from the European perspective; objectively, for Europe, ‘barbarians’ functioned as ‘force’

Whitehead, notes this as an example of relativity of perspective in that the culture and ideas of the barbarians –e.g. the Goths and other invading peoples– were advanced and refreshing

1.4.3 Kinds of influence

Society, function, change in interaction with ideas

Modern cosmology or ‘world view’ influences how individuals experience their world

1.4.4 Sociological function, change and ideas

The human soul and the humanitarian ideal

Aspects of freedom; from force to persuasion

Foresight [and understanding which results in foresight] in social function

1.4.5 Modern cosmology [metaphysics, world view] and how individuals experience their world

Cosmology. Nature and the laws of nature; four types of cosmology: cosmology is expressed in laws or understanding of the patterns of nature regarding whose character there are four classic kinds of interpretation; these are the schools of immanence, of imposition, of mere description [positivism,] and of conventional interpretation; cosmology, science and faith

Philosophy. Objectivity and subjectivity; Cartesianism; time, coherences; appearance and reality; and philosophic method

Civilization. Truth, beauty, adventure, and peace

2 HISTORY: A BRIEF OUTLINE

2.1 THE ANCIENT WORLD

2.1.1 Before History

2.1.1.1 The Universe

Here, I omit details; the history of the universe may later be covered in Physics, below and subsequently

The idea of an initial singularity [big bang] may explain features of the known or visible universe; this does not imply that the history of the entire universe known and unknown is described by such a singularity. The domain of the unknown is, almost without doubt, much larger if not infinitely larger than that of the known. From physical cosmology it is understood that the known universe, almost homogeneous on a large scale, is, perhaps, a mere bubble in a much larger arena

From the sections on nothingness and general cosmology in Journey in Being, a foundation of the vast spatio-temporal extent and variety of larger arena, the one universe, may be seen in indeterminism and the void. From the non-spatiotemporal, acausal void arises space-time-actuality and causation and law; and law includes physics but is not restricted to the physics of the known universe and may be much more varied

2.1.1.2 Geological Evolution of Earth: Geochronology

2.1.1.3 Evolution of Life on Earth: Biochronology

ERA	PERIOD	EPOCH	TIME OF BEGINNING [millions of years ago]	GEO- AND BIOLOGICAL EVENTS
ARCHEOZOIC PROTEROZOID [primitive and soft life forms]	Precambrian periods	Numerous minor sub-divisions of only local application	4,600	Origin of earth and solar system
			4,000 [?]	Origin of life in a reducing atmosphere leading later to production of oxygen
			2,500 [?]	Photosynthetic oxygen; permitted first global oxidation of iron ores
			1,500 [?]	First primitive soft-bodied animals; main types of invertebrates and some aquatic plants
			700	Great Eocambrian Ice Age
PALEOZOIC [origin and rise of shelled invertebrates and vertebrates; abundance of fishes and amphibians; first reptiles]	Cambrian		600	Many aquatic, some land plants; trilobites, brachiopods and many other invertebrates; first shell-forming invertebrates – attributed to rising alkalinity of the ocean: shell fossils common
	Ordovician		500	Ice Age in Africa Earliest known chordates; graptolites and corals widespread
	Silurian		435	Caledonian mountain building Club mosses and other primitive land plants abundant; some arthropods may have invaded land
	Devonian		395	Acadian mountain building Fishes abundant; first amphibians; many land arthropods; first horse-tails, ferns, liverworts
	Carboniferous	Mississippian	345	Huge forests of primitive plants; great coal age, reduction of carbon dioxide and rise in atmospheric oxygen Age of amphibians
	Carboniferous	Pennsylvanian	310	Hercynian-Appalachian mountain building Reptiles appear
	Permian		280	Ice age in South America, Africa, Australia, India and Antarctica Extinction of many Paleozoic organisms such as trilobites; amphibians decrease in influence
MESOZOIC [Age of Reptiles]	Triassic		230	Beginning of major continental drift; world-wide red beds Forests of conifers and cycads; Age of Reptiles begins: reptiles abundant and varied; first mammals
	Jurassic		180	Age of Ammonites; mild world climate; first birds
	Cretaceous		135	Age of Chalk [planktonic foraminifera;] extinction of dinosaurs and many other Mesozoic organisms; flowering plants appear
CENOZOIC [Age of Mammals]	Tertiary	Paleocene	67	Alpine mountain building world-wide and continuing through the Tertiary period Mammals abundant; first primates; flowering plants abundant
		Eocene	58
		Oligocene	36
		Miocene	25	Evolution of grasses and modern type mammals and birds
		Pliocene Earliest hominids	7	Increasing mountain glaciation Freezing of Antarctic begins 3 – 4 million years ago; 20 to 90 thousand year Milankovitch [Yugoslav scientist who worked out the mathematics of their prediction] cycles of glaciation and mild climate results in buildup of Antarctic ice since less ice melts than was formed each cycle, in drier climate and lower ocean levels Earliest known human [hominid] fossils 4 million years ago from the Omo River in Ethiopia; for purposes of demarcation, Man is defined as the primate that habitually makes and uses tools. The earliest hominids are collectively known as Australopithecines but there is speculation though no clear evidence that the earliest Australopithecines were associated with tools
	Quaternary [Except for the Holocene, the dates are not known to be exact; and there is difficulty with correlation of glacial periods to the north and periods of intense rain in the tropical and subtropical belts]	Pleistocene	2	Great Ice Age, time of Stone Age man; growth of major deserts
		Villafranchian or Early Pleistocene Earliest fossil evidence of hominids	2 [2,000,000]	The earliest evidence that at least some Australopithecines were human in character comes form Olduvai Gorge in Tanganyika: where fossils dated at 1,750,000 years old are associated with crude stone tools made for chopping. The Australopithecines form two major groups: Australopithecus –smaller and more delicate– and Paranthropus, larger, heavier boned, roughly the size of a gorilla. It has been speculated that Australopithecus was more modern and evolved, and provided the tools to Paranthropus who may have furnished part of Australopithecus’ diet The advance and retreat of glaciers pushes climate belts toward and away from the equator; drier conditions lead to thinning of sub-tropical belts and desertification; buildup of mountains due less erosion; and successive glaciations scoured deeper and deeper valleys; and consequent saltation along all the great rivers where numerous fossils ranging from ancestral horse to mammoth of the period are found The regular use and making of tools provides relative adaptive advantages but also increases importance of adaptation to the behavioral environment especially the flexible thumb and upright posture for the use of tools
		Early Middle Pleistocene	0.6 [600,000]	Günz [Nebraskan in America] and Mindel [Kansan] Glaciations, First Interglacial period Paranthropus dies out but may have interbred with Australopithecus; thus the latter or both are at the root of Modern Man Hominids spread from tropical Africa, north to North Africa and Europe, east across southern Asia as far as China. The earlier fossils belong to the evolutionary stage Pithecanthropus, intermediate between Australopithecus and Paranthropus; they were successful hunters especially of deer, used fire, ate their dead; much is known about their skeletal remains but little about their tools which were primitive choppers and flakes
		Late Middle Pleistocene	0.275 [275,000]	Second Interglacial and Riss [Illinoian] Glaciation Many human artifacts but few fossils from this period have been found – the Steinhem [Germany] and Swanscombe [England] skulls; brain size was comparable to that of modern man and show a combination of modern and primitive characteristics; use of primitive tools coexist with the Biphase tradition – chipped on both faces, spread throughout Africa, western and southern Europe, southern Asia as far as India, resulting in refinement of hand axes, new tool forms and techniques and an aesthetic element: this later technology required an opposable thumb but this does not mean that the different traditions were those of fundamentally different kinds of men Most uniquely human behavioral patterns were probably established by the end of this period if not earlier including: language and transmission of culture, permanent association of males and females in small food-getting and child-rearing units co-evolving with year round availability of the female
		Late Pleistocene	0.095 [95,000]	Third Interglacial and Würm [Wisconsin] Glaciation; the last melting began hesitantly 17,000 years ago: sea levels rose about 10 feet a century – a likely source of the stories of the great flood Numerous hominid fossils, many belonging to modern man, Homo sapiens alongside “Neanderthal man,” more “primitive” in appearance but possessed of a larger brain than modern man. The most likely view is that the Neanderthal was a racial variant of and interbred with modern man; about 40,000 years ago the Neanderthals began to be replaced by completely modern man; Neanderthals may have lasted until the end of the Late Pleistocene Throughout Europe, North Africa and Southern Asia, the new peoples carried a new kind of culture called Upper Paleolithic characterized by: stone artifacts made on long, narrow flakes called blades, many specialized tools and weapons, use of bone and antlers in artifacts, stone tips for spears, traps, encircling of prey, a lunar calendar to predict movement of game, artificial shelters; burial of the dead and a highly developed art indicating a new richness of spiritual life Last great expansion of the human world into Australia and Siberia and from there across the Bering Strait in to the “New World”
		Holocene	0.01 [10,000]	Recent development of agricultural, industrial, and literate man About 10,000 years ago, with the end of the last melting, thermal levels rose, glaciers retreated, sea levels rose, many watered areas began to dry out, the environments of the lower latitude became more diversified and impoverished, many large game animals became extinct. In response Human culture of the Holocene became much more regionally varied, plant and animal husbandry started and made possible: fixed year round settlements, growth of large dense populations, and civilization as we know it: urbanization, stratified, specialized, politically organized societies. Cultivation and domestication of animals began in two areas: from Mesopotamia to China, and America from Mexico to Peru Man’s impact on the environment becomes significant in the Milankovitch cycle and associated events such as desertification

Table 1 Bio-Geochronology of Earth. Compiled from The Columbia History of the World, 1972

2.1.1.4 Human Evolution

Further details are in the table above

BC 4M Earliest known hominids

1.75 Stone tools

0.6 Pithecanthropus evolves

0.2 Possible Homo sapiens; use of fire

95K Homo sapiens; burial of the dead

40K Modern Homo sapiens; Upper Paleolithic culture

30K Art

10K Holocene epoch: end of last ice-age

9K Beginnings of animal husbandry – domesticated sheep in the Tigris Valley, agriculture

2.1.2 The Ancient Near East

2.1.2.1 Mesopotamia

BC 10,000 Wooden reaping knives set with flint blades used in Palestine

9000 End of the Ice Age; domesticated sheep in the North Tigris valley

7700 Çatal Huyuk, Turkey; obsidian mined for tools; fertility cult

7000 Pottery

6500 Copper

3300 Writing, wheel, sailboats, animal plows in Sumer

3100 Hieroglyphic writing in Egypt

2350 Sargon I of Agade, first known empire

2100 Supremacy of Ur in Lower Mesopotamia; laws of Ur-Nammu of Ur, first known law book

1800 Assyrian temple for the Sumerian god, Enlil

2.1.2.2 Egypt

BC 1550-1200 Wheeled vehicles common, bronze, bellows and other labor saving tools

1375-1358 Amarna age; Ikhnaton’s religious reforms

2.1.2.3 The New Levant: Syria and Palestine

BC 2000-500 Establishment of desert religions

1550 Hyskos I expelled from Egypt; new model Egyptian army using chariots and composite bows

1525 Thutmose I claims Syria to the Euphrates

1500 Invention of alphabetic writing in Syria

1200 Iron use common

1100 Camel use common in North Arabia; lime plaster used to make watertight cisterns opens up dry areas for settlement

2.1.3 Asian Civilization

2.1.3.1 Early India

2.1.3.1.1 Prehistoric India

BC 3000-1500 Indus Valley Civilization

1500-1200 Aryan invasion; earliest hymns of the Rg-Veda

2.1.3.1.2 Vedic Era

BC 1200-900 Composition of Rg-Veda

900-500 Later Vedas, Brahmanas, Early Upanishads

2.1.3.1.3 Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

BC c. 550 Birth of Mahavira and Gautama

185-100 Laws of Manu

2.1.3.2 Early China

BC 1523-1027 Shang dynasty [according to Bamboo Annals]

1027-771 Western Chou dynasty

770-256 Eastern Chou dynasty

551-479 Traditional dates of Confucius

c. 500 Beginning of Iron Age in China

403-221 Age of Warring States

223 Ch’in annihilates Ch’u

221-207 Ch’in dynasty

2.1.3.3 The Chinese Empire: The Formative Period

BC 214 First expansion of Chinese empire

213 Burning of the Books

210 Death of First Emperor

206 Destruction of Imperial Library

206-AD 9 Former Han dynasty

BC 191 Book Burning edict rescinded

141 Legalists excluded from government careers

124 Imperial Academy established

127-101 Second expansion of Chinese empire

87 Regency established

51 Peace between China and Hsiung-nu

AD 9-23 Interregnum of Wang Mang

25-220 Later Han dynasty

49 Peace between China and Southern Hsiung-nu

65 First Chinese reference to Buddhism

89 Regency reintroduced

184 Uprising of Yellow Turbans

220-265 China divided

265-316 Western Chin dynasty

316 Loss of northern China

317-589 China divided

2.1.4 Classical Antiquity: Jews and Greeks

2.1.4.1 Jews

BC 1250 Israelites invade Palestine

900 King Asa of Jordan bans worship of gods other than Yahweh

2.1.4.2 The Great Divide [omitted]

Some elements incorporated below

2.1.4.3 The Century of Minor Powers [omitted]

2.1.4.4 Persia and Athens

BC 780 Alphabet

776 Olympic Games

770 First Greek colony, Cumae, on Italian mainland

750-700 Iliad and Odyssey reach their present forms

585 Thales of Miletus, beginnings of natural philosophy

560 Pisistratus becomes tyrant of Athens

510 Pisistratus family expelled from Athens

540 Xenophanes, philosophic monism; “Second Isaiah,” nationalistic monotheism

525 Pythagoras, the philosophic life

499 Ionian cities, aided by Athens, revolt from Persia

490 Battle of Marathon

478 Athens creates the Delian League for liberation of Greece from Persia

475 Parmenides: opposition of reality [changeless] to appearance [changing]

458 Aeschylus’ Oresteia

447 Beginning of Parthenon

447 Sophist study of argument, rhetoric; Pindar [lyric poetry,] Sophocles [tragedy,] Herodotus [history,] Phidias [sculpture

431-74 Socrates [moral philosophy,] Hippocrates [rational medicine,] Democritus [atomism,] Aristophanes [comedy,] Euripides [tragedy,] Thucydides [history]

431-404 Peloponnesian war: defeat of Athenian fleet

2.1.4.5 The Fourth Century to the Death of Alexander

BC 404-37 Spartan hegemony in Greece

399 Trial and execution of Socrates

371-362 Plato teaching in Athens

359 Philip II: King of Macedonia, consequences of specialization in war

338 Aristotle, Diogenes, Demosthenes

336-323 Ascent to death, at age 32, of Alexander: conquest from the Macedonian Empire to Indus Valley

2.1.4.6 The Hellenistic World

BC 323-276 Wars of Alexander’s successors…

c. 290 The Colossus of Rhodes

275-215 Aristarchus, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Theocritus, Apollonius Rhodius, Manetho and Berossus

c. 175 The great altar of Pergamum

2.1.5 Classical Antiquity: Rome

2.1.5.1 The Roman Republic

BC 387 Rome destroyed by the Celts

338 Rome in control of Latium

200- Rome defeats Philip of Macedon; Leads to ascent of Rome, 800 years of stable power with basis in: granting of citizenship to slaves

197 and consequent loyalty to Rome and unification with other cities

67-62 Pompey: suppression of piracy; campaigns

2.1.5.2 Julius Caesar

BC 58 Conquest of Gaul [France, Belgium, parts of Holland, Germany and Switzerland;] flowering of Latin literature: Lucretius, Catullus, Cicero, and Caesar

48 Defeats Pompey at Pharsalus

48-47 In Egypt with Cleopatra VII

46 Reform of Roman Calendar

44 Assassinated

2.1.5.3 Augustan Empire

BC 31- AD 68 Classic age of Latin literature: Virgil, Horace, Livy, Ovid, Seneca, Petronius

AD 6 Judea taken over by Romans; revolutionary “Messianic” movements develop

30 Jesus crucified

75-100 Four Gospels written

2.1.5.4 The Later Roman Empire

2.1.5.5 Late Roman society and culture [interaction of power, knowledge and faith]

AD 250 Plotinus, Neoplatonism begins

381 Council of Constantinople; Doctrine of the Trinity completed

391 Theodosius I prohibits all pagan worship

410 Sack of Rome by Visigoths followed by Christian Apologetics, notably Augustine’s City of God

431 Council of Ephesus

451 Council of Chalcedon

496 Conversion of Franks to Christianity

534 Completion of Justinian’s law code

641 Death of Heraclius; Gospels have been translated into 10 languages; Christian missionaries working in China

2.2 THE WORLD: 500 – 1500

2.2.1 The Arabs

2.2.1.1 The Arabs and the Rise of Islam

2.2.1.2 The Disruption and Decline of the Arab Empire

BC 853 First reference to Arabs in an inscription of the Assyrian Shalmaneser

AD 24 Expedition of Aelius Gallus to South Arabia

530 Christian Abyssinia’s invasion of South Arabia

570 Birth of Muhammad in Mecca

622 Hijra [migration] of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina; beginning of the Islamic era

630 Mecca conquered by Muhammad and becomes the spiritual center of Islam

632 Death of Muhammad; succession of Abu Bakr as the first caliph

632-786 Ascent of Arab Empire

786 Accession of Harun al-Rashid; Abbasid courtly life at its best

786-c.1600 Disruption and decline of the Arab Empire

1639 Ottomans seize Iraq from Persia

2.2.1.3 Islamic Civilization

AD 500-622 Pre-Islamic poetry flourishes in Arabia

650 Official version of Koran

670 Great Mosque of Qayrawan in Tunisia

696 Arab coinage introduced by Abd al-Malik; Arabic becomes official administrative language of the empire

751 Arabs learn papermaking from captured Chinese prisoners; use of paper spreads westward in the empire

765 School of medicine founded in Baghdad

767 Death of Abu Hanifa, founder of Hanifite School of Law

785 Building of Great Mosque of Cordova by Abd al-Rahman

795 Death of Anas ibn Malik, founder of Malikite School of Law

813-833 Translation movement; Arabic science and learning flourishes; espousal of Mu’tazilism as the official theology

815 Death of Abu Niwas, celebrated poet of Abbasid court

820 Death of Shafi’i, founder of Shafi’ite School of Law

850 Death of Kindi, first Arab philosopher

855 Death of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of Hanbalite School of Law

876 Building of ibn Tulun mosque in Cairo

877 Death of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, most prominent translator of Greek works

922 Execution of Hallaj, Sufi Mystic, for heresy

925 Death of Razi, physician and scientist

950 Death of Farabi, philosopher

965 Death of Mutanabbi, neoclassical poet

970 Mosque-University of al-Azhar built in Cairo by the Fatimids

1010 Firdawsi, Persian poet, completes his Epic of Kings

1030 Death of Biruni, physician, physicist, astronomer, mathematician, geographer, and historian

1037 Death of ibn Sina [Avicenna,] physician and philosopher

1067 Nizmiyya Madrasa academy established in Baghdad; Ash’arasim established as orthodox theology

1111 Death of Ghazali, mystic and theologian

1123 Death of Omar Khayyam, poet and astronomer

1198 Death of ibn Rushd [Averroes,] Aristotelian philosopher

1229 Death of Yaqut, geographer

1273 Death of Jalal al-Din al-Rumi, Persian mystic and poet

1325 Ibn Batuta begins his travels

1353 Completion of Alhambra in Granada

1390 Death of Hafiz, Persian lyric poet

1406 Death of ibn Khaldun, Arab historian

2.2.1.4 Jews in the Arab World

AD 500-550 Compilation of the Babylonian Talmud

c. 650 Beginning of Babylonian Gaonate

760-763 Gaonate of Yehudai

c. 760 Anan, religious leader

c. 800 Beginning of Karaite sect

882-942 Saadiah Gaon

c.950 Hasdai ibn Shaprut of Cordova, physician and scholar

968-1038 Gaonate of Sherira and Hai

992-1055 Samuel ibn Nagrela of Granada

c.1000-1148 Golden Age of Spanish Hebrew Literature

c.1075-1141 Judah ha-Levi, poet

1135-1204 Moses Maimonedes

1147-1148 Almohade conquest of Spain

2.2.2 Asia and Africa

2.2.2.1 Sub-Saharan Africa

AD c. 3-4th cent. Rise of empire of Ghana

4th cent. Rise of Christian Kingdom of Axum [Ethiopia]

c. 800 Founding of kingdom of Kanem

c. 1040 Mission of Abdallah to the Goddala

c. 1075 Almoravid conquest of Ghana

c. 1090 Conversion to Islam of Mai of Kanem

11^th-114^th cents. Building of “Great Zimbabwe” complex

c. 1100 Earliest evidence of stone mosques on East African coast; founding of Timbuktu

12^th-16^th cents. Rule of Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopia

c. 1200 Rise of sultanate of Kilwa

1203 Sack of Ghana by Sumanguru of Susu

1230 Accession of sun Dyata of Mali

1235 Battle of Kirina

1324-1325 Pilgrimage to Mecca of Musa I, mansa of Mali

c. 1464 Accession of sonni Ali Ber of Songhai

1482 Building of Elmina Castle [São Jorge da Mina]

1488 Doubling of Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomeu Dias

1493 Accession of askiya Muhammad the Great of Songhai

1498 Arrival of Portuguese on East African coast

1590-1591 Moroccan invasion of the western Sudan

2.2.2.2 The Chinese Empire: The Great Era

AD 561-618 Sui dynasty

605-610 Grand Canal built

612-614 Korean campaigns

618-907 T’ang dynasty

627-649 Reign of T’ai-tsung

630 Defeat of Eastern Turks

656 Defeat of Western Turks

690-705 Reign of Empress Wu

713-755 Reign of Hsüan-tsung

751 Battle of Talas River

755 Rebellion of An Lu-shan

780 Tax reform

821 Peace between China and Tibet

840 Uighur empire destroyed

841-845 Religious persecutions

879 Looting of Canton

907-960 China divided

960-1126 Northern Sung dynasty

1004 Peace between China and Liao

1024 World’s first paper currency

1044 Peace between China and His-hsia

1069-1075 Wang An-shih in power

1125 Liao empire destroyed

1127-1279 Southern Sung dynasty

1130-1200 Chu Hsi

1135 Lin-an capital of Southern Sung

1141 Peace between China and Chin

2.2.2.3 The Chinese Empire: Foreign Powers

AD c. 1167-1227 Chinggis Khan

1217 Mongols conquer Tarim Basin

1221 Mongols conquer West Turkestan and Afghanistan

1222 Chinggis Khan raids India

1227 Mongols conquer His-hsia

1229-1241 Ögödei Great Khan

1234 Mongols conquer Chin empire

1238 Mongols take Moscow

1251-1259 Möngke Great Khan

1252 Mongols conquer Nan-chao and eastern Tibet

1258 Mongols take Baghdad, conquer Korea

1260-1294 Khubilai Great Khan

1274 Mongols raid Kyūshū

1275-1292 Marco Polo in China

1279 Mongols conquer Southern Sung

1280-1367 Yüan dynasty

1281 Unsuccessful Mongol invasion of Kyūshū

1293 Unsuccessful Mongol invasion of Java

1268-1644 Ming dynasty

1336-1405 Timur [Tamerlane]

1424 Death of Yung-lo Emperor

1405-1433 Voyages of Cheng Ho

1419 Death of Tsong-kha-pa

1421 Peking capital of China

1428 Annam independent

1449 Oirats raid China

1514 Coming of the Westerners

1522 Tax reform

1550 Tatars raid China

1557 Portuguese gain possession of Macao

1607 Peace between China and Japan

1618 Outbreak of fighting between Manchus and China

1644 Suicide of last Ming emperor; Manchus enter Peking

2.2.2.4 Early Japan

AD 552 Traditional and approximate date for the introduction of Buddhism from Korea

710 First permanent capital at Nara

794 Capital at Heian-kyō [Kyoto]

1185 Minamoto clan victorious in struggle with Taira

1192 Minamoto Yoritomo receives title of Shogun

1274, 1281 Abortive attempts by Mongols under Khubilai Khan to invade Japan

1333 Overthrow of Kamakura shogunate

1338 Establishment of new shogunate dynasty, the Ashikaga

2.2.2.5 India

AD 500 Pandyas ruling at Madurai

c. 540 End of Gupta dynasty

c. 540 Rise of Chalukyas at Vatapi

c. 606-646 Harsha of Kanauj

700-800 Spread of Buddhism to Nepal and Tibet

711 Arab invasion of Sindh

c. 750 Rise of imperial Pratiharas; rise of Rashtrakutas

760 Palas in Bengal

c. 846 Rise of Cholas and defeat of Pallavis

c. 970 Reemergence of Chalukyan power and defeat of Rashtrakutas

1001 Beginning of raids by Turks under Mahmud of Ghazni

1024 Destruction of Somnath by Mahmud

1175 First Indian expedition by Muhammad Ghuri

1192 Defeat at Tarain of Prithvi Raja by the Turks

1206-1290 Slave dynasty [beginning of Delhi Sultanate]

1290-1320 Khalji Sultans

1320-1413 Tughluq Sultans

1336 Founding of Vijayanagar

1347 founding of Bahmani Sultanate

1398 Invasion of Timur

1414-1451 Sayyid Sultans

1451-1426 Lodi Sultans

1498 Arrival of Vasco da Gama

2.2.2.6 Southeast Asia

AD c. 657-681 Reign of Jayavarman I [Khmer]

671 Visit to Srivijaya of pilgrim I-tsing

732 Accession of Sanjaya [Java]

929 Accession of Sindok [Java]

1002-1050 Reign of Suryavarman I [Khmer]

1044 Founding of Empire of Pagan [Burma]

c. 1222 Founding of Singosari [Java]

1268 Accession of Kertanagara [Java]

1287 Mongol conquest of Pagan [Burma]

1292 Visit of Marco Polo to Perlak [Sumatra]

1293 Mongol invasion of Java; founding of Empire of Majapahit

1330-1364 Rule of Gaja Mada, mapatih of Majapahit

1350 Founding of T’ai kingdom of Ayt’ia [Siam]

c. 1402 Founding of Malacca

1431 Fall of Angkor [Khmer]

1448-1488 Reign of Trailok [Siam]

1450 Promulgation of the “Palace Law” of Siam

1511 Portuguese conquest of Malacca

2.2.3 Medieval Europe

2.2.3.1 Early Middle Ages

2.2.3.1.1 Roman and Byzantine Emperors

AD 284-305 Diocletian

306-337 Constantine

527-565 Justinian I

717-741 Leo I the Isaurian

2.2.3.1.2 Frankish Kings and Western Emperors [Since 800]

416-751 Merovingian house

741-928 Carolingian house

768-814 Charlemagne

813-840 Louis the Pious

876-888 Charles III the Fat

2.2.3.1.3 German Kings and Emperors

919-1024 Saxon or Ottonian house

910-936 Henry I the Fowler

936-972 Otto I

983-1002 Otto III

1024-1137 Salian house

2.2.3.1.4 French Kings

888/987 ff. Capetian house

2.2.3.1.5 Roman Pontiffs

392-496 Gelasius I

590-604 Gregory I

858-867 Nicholas I

1073-1085 Gregory VII

1088-1099 Urban II

1130-1143 Innocent II

2.2.3.1.6 Ecclesiastical Intellectuals

260-340 Lactantius

c. 340-420 Jerome

354-430 St. Augustine

816-840 Agobard, archbishop of Lyons

c. 810-c. 877 Johannes Scotus Erigena

847-882 Hincmar, archbishop of Reims

2.2.3.2 The High Middle Ages

2.2.3.2.1 Roman Pontiffs

AD 1198-1216 Innocent III

1294-1303 Boniface VIII

1316-1334 John XXII

2.2.3.2.2 German Emperors

1138-1268 Hohenstaufen house

1212-1250 Frederick II

1268 Death of Conradin

1314-1347 Louis of Bavaria, Wittelsbach

2.2.3.2.3 English and French Princes

1154 ff. England’s Angevine house

987-1328 France’s Capetians

1285-1314 Philip IV the Fair

12566/1268 ff. Anjou cadet line in Sicily-Naples

2.2.3.2.4 Orders of the Church

910 Cluny [reformed Benedictine]

1098 Cistercian order

1118/1128 Templars [military order]

1120 Premonstratensians [canons-regular]

1201 Humiliati [quasi-mendicant]

1209 Franciscans [mendicant]

1215 Dominicans [mendicant]

2.2.3.2.5 Churchmen and Intellectuals

1079-1142 Peter Abelard

1090-1153 Bernard of Clairvaux

1126-1198 Averroes

c. 1130-1202 Joachim of Fiore

1225-1274 Thomas Aquinas

2.2.3.2.6 Church Councils

1179 III Lateran

1215 IV Lateran

1245 I Lyon

1274 II Lyon

1311 Vienne

2.2.3.3 The Late Middle Ages

2.2.3.3.1 Princes and Dynasties

AD 1272/

1314/1438 ff. Hapsburg Emperors

1328 French Capetians replaced by Valois

1485 English Angevins replaced by Tudors

2.2.3.3.2 Soldiers, Magistrates, Artists, and Businessmen

c. 1267-1337 Giotto, son of Bondone, of Florence

1313-1354 Cola, son of Rienzi

1394 Death of John Hawkwood

c. 1395-1456 Jacques Coeur

c.1394-1476 John Fortescue

2.2.3.3.3 Intellectuals

1221-1274 Bonaventure

1282 Death of Siger of Brabant

c. 1214-1292 Roger Bacon

1274-1208 John Duns Scotus

c. 1250-1312 Peter Dubois

c. 1240-1313 Arnold of Villanova

c.1235-1315 Raymond Lull

1265-1321 Dante Alighieri

1328 Death of John of Jandun

c. 1275-1342 Marsiglio of Padua

c. 1300-1349 William of Ockham

1304-1374 Francis Petrarch

c. 1329-1384 John Wycliffe

c. 1369-1415 John Hus

1483-1546 Martin Luther

2.2.3.4 The Jews in Medieval Europe

AD c. 359 Jewish Calendar committed to writing by Hillel II

425 End of Jewish patriarchate

425-475 Compilation of Palestinian Talmud

613-711 Visigothic persecutions of the Jews in Spain

813-840 Reign of Louis the Pious; earliest known diplomas of privileges to Jews

1144 Death of William of Norwich; beginning of medieval blood accusation

1215 Fourth Lateran Council; yellow badge

1290 Expulsion of Jews from England

1306 Expulsion of Jews from France

1348 Black Death persecutions; beginning of ghettoization in Germany

1391 Pogroms in Spain; beginning of Marranism

1481 Inquisition proceedings begin in Spain

1492 Expulsion of Jews from Spain

1516 Establishment of ghetto in Venice

1648-1658 Chmielnicki uprisings and massacres in Ukraine and Poland

1666 Sabbetai Zevi’s abortive messianic movement collapses

2.2.4 Byzantium

2.2.4.1 Early Byzantium

AD 330 Dedication of the city of Constantinople

527-565 Reign of Justinian the Great

578 The Slavs reach the Peloponnese

610 Accession of Heraclius I

636 First Arab defeat of Byzantium; beginning of the conquest of Syria and Asia Minor

641 Arab conquest of Byzantine Egypt

717 Lifting of the last Arab siege of Constantinople by Leo III

717-796 Isaurian dynasty

726-730 Beginning of the Iconoclastic Controversy

763 Constantine V’s victory over the Bulgars at Anchialus

787 Restoration of images by the Second Council of Nicaea

796 Coup d’état of Irene

800 Coronation of Charlemagne at Rome

813 First Bulgar siege of Constantinople

815 Beginning of the second period of iconoclasm

820-867 Amorian dynasty

828 Arabs begin the conquest of Byzantine Sicily

838 Arabs take Amorium

843 Council of Orthodoxy ends the Iconoclastic Controversy

863 Michael III’s victory over the Arabs at Poson

863-864 Cyrillo-Methodian mission to the Slavs

864 Conversion of Boris-Michael of Bulgaria

867 Murder of Michael III; accession of Basil I the Macedonian

2.2.4.2 Later Byzantium

AD 867-1056 Macedonian dynasty

876 Byzantine recapture of the Cicilian gates; beginning of Byzantine reconquest of southern Italy

926 Second Bulgar siege of Constantinople

931 Beginning of Byzantine reconquest of Syria

944-959 Reign of Constantine VII of Porphyrogenitus

965 Byzantium retakes Crete and Cyprus

975 John I Tzimisces reconquers Syria and Palestine

976-1025 Reign of Basil II

1000 Basil II’s campaign in Transcaucasia

1014 Basil II’s annihilation of the First Bulgarian Empire

1041 Start of Norman conquest of southern Italy

1054 Great Schism between Rome and Constantinople

1071 Seljuk defeat of Byzantium at Manazkert

1081-1185 Comnenian dynasty

1082 Grant of commercial privileges to Venice

1097 Arrival of the First Crusade at Constantinople

1143-1180 Reign of Manuel I

1159 Manuel I’s entrance into Antioch

1176 Byzantine defeat at Myriokephalon

1182 Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople

1185-1204 Angeli dynasty

1204 Sack of Constantinople by the Latins

1204-1261 Latin Empire of Constantinople; Lascarid dynasty at Nicaea

1205 Defeat of the Latin Empire by the Bulgars

1230 Defeat of Epirus at Klokotnica

1259 Michael VIII’s defeat of the Latins at Pelagonia

1261 Michael VIII retakes Constantinople

1261-1453 Paleologue dynasty

1274 Union of Lyons

1282 Death of Michael VIII

1304 Revolt of the Catalan mercenaries

1346 Coronation of Stephen Dušan Czar of Serbia

1365 Ottoman capital shifted to Andrinople in Thrace

1369 Journey of John V Paleologus to the West

1389 Ottoman victory at Kossovo

1396 Failure of the Crusade of Nicopolis

1399-1400 Journey of Manuel II Paleologus to the West

1438-1439 Council of Union at Florence

1444 Failure of the Crusade at Varna

1453 Ottomans capture Constantinople

2.2.4.3 The Slavs and Early Russia

SOUTHERN SLAVS	WESTERN SLAVS	EASTERN SLAVS [RUSSIA]
c. 517 Slavic tribes begin to cross the Danube into the Balkans
c. 679 Bulgars cross Danube c. 680-1018 First Bulgarian Empire 813 First Bulgar siege of Constantinople	c. 628-658 Principality of Samo in Moravia	7^th cent. Scandinavian infiltration of Russia begins
	846-864 Reign of Rastislav in Great Moravia	c. 860 Riurik in Novgorod; first Russian raid on Constantinople
864 Baptism of Boris-Michael of Bulgaria	863-864 Cyrillo-Methodian mission to Moravia 906 Magyars Sack Great Moravia	c. 880-912 Rise of Kiev under Oleg
	10^th cent. Premyszlid dynasty in Bohemia; Piast dynast in Poland	c. 968 End of Khazar empire
	992-1025 Reign of Boleslav the Brave in Poland	989 Baptism of Vladimir of Kiev
		1035-1054 Zenith of Kiev under Laroslav the Wise; Metropolitan of Kiev created
	1102-1138 Boleslav III of Poland	1113-1135 Reign of Vladimir Monmouth at Kiev
	1140-1173 Vladimir II hereditary King of Poland	1157-1174 Reign of Andrei Bogolubskii at Suzdal
1168-1196 Stephen Nemanja founds the Serbian Empire		1169 Suzdal sacks Kiev
		1176-1212 Vsevolod “Big Net” prince of Suzdal
1197-1207 John Asen [Kalojen] founds the second Bulgarian Empire 1217 Coronation of Stephen I as Czar of Serebia		1198-1205 Zenith of Galici under Roman of Smolensk
1218-1241 Zenith of Second Bulgarian Empire under John II Asen		1223 Mongol defeat of the Russian princes at Kalka
1241 Mongol sack of Second Bulgarian Empire	1241 Mongol sack of Poland	1242 Alexander Nevski’s victory over the Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus; Golden Horde settles in southern Russia
	1253-1258 Zenith of Bohemia under Ottokar the Great
		1282 Mongols sack Galicia
	1300 Wenceslas II of Bohemia king of Poland 1301 Wenceslass III of Bohemia crowned king of Hungary
	1306 Accession of Luxemburg dynasty in Bohemia	1325-1341 Ivan I Kalita founds the Muscovite state
1336-1355 Zenith of Serbia under Stephen IV Dusan		1328 Metropolitan see moves from Kiev to Moscow
	1333 Restoration of Poland under Casimir III 1347 Emperor Charles IV king of Bohemia
1371 Ottoman victory over Serbia on the Marica		1380 Dimitri Donskoi’s victory over the Mongols at Kulikovo
1389 Ottoman victory at the first Battle of Kossovo	1386 Marriage of Jadwiga of Poland to Jagiello of Lithuania 1410 Polish defeat of the Teutonic Knights at Tanenberg	1387 Galicia absorbed by Poland
1448 Ottoman victory at the second Battle of Kossovo; Ottoman domination of the Balkans	1447 Union of Poland and Lithuania
	1446 Second Peace of Thorn	1480 Ivan III proclaimed Czar and Autocrat of Russia
	1526 Ottoman victory at Mohács 1547 Hapsburgs become hereditary kings of Bohemia 1572 End of Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland	1533-1584 Reign of Ivan IV the Terrible 1552-1556 Russians take Kazan and Astrakhan 1598-1605 Boris Godunov Czar of Russia 1604-1613 “Time of Troubles;” Polish intervention in Russia 1613 Accession of Michael I Romanov in Russia
	1620 Battle of White Mountain; end of Bohemian independence

2.3 TOWARD MODERNITY

2.3.1 The Renaissance and Reformation in Europe

2.3.1.1 The State System of the Italian Renaissance

AD 1250 Death of Frederick II and beginning of the imperial interregnum

1380 Removal of the papacy from Rome to Avignon

1321 Death of Dante

c. 1325 Beginning of regular sea traffic between Italy and northern Europe via the open Atlantic

1327 Earliest mention of an artillery piece in the documents

1342 Petrarch’s Italia mia

1347 Outbreak of the Black Death

1378 Beginning of the Great Schism

1385-1402 Reign of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan

1404-1414 Reign of Ladislas of Durazzo, King of Naples

1414 Opening of the Council of Constance

1434 Accession to power in Florence of Cosimo de’ Medici

1450 Francesco Sforza becomes Duke of Milan

1457 Publication of the first surviving dated printed book

1469 Succession to power in Florence of Lorenzo the Magnificent

1494 First French invasion of Italy; fall of the Medici and reestablishment of the Florentine Republic

1497 Vasco da Gama reaches India by sea

1502 The Spanish conquer Naples

1513 Machiavelli’s Prince

1530 Fall of the last Florentine Republic; return of the Medici

1535 Charles V occupies Milan as an imperial fief

2.3.1.2 Humanism and Society

AD 1341 Petrarch crowned poet laureate on the Capitoline in Rome

1353 Boccaccio’s Decameron

1375 Coluccio Salutati appointed chancellor of the Florentine Republic

1404 Pier Paolo Vergerio’s Concerning Liberal Studies, the first humanist treatise on education

1414 Poggio Bracciolini discovers Quintillian’s De institutione oratoria in the library of the monastery of St. Gallen in Switzerland

1429 Leonardo Bruni finishes his History of Florence

1440 Lorenzo Valla’s On the True Good [or On Pleasure]

1450 Pope Nicholas V founds the Vatican Library

1456 Giannozzo Manetti enters the service of King Alfonso of Naples

1462 Establishment of the Platonic Academy in Florence

c. 1469 Marsilio Ficino finishes translating into Latin the dialogues of Plato, the first complete translation into any Western language

1469 Birth of Erasmus

1486 Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man

1505 Erasmus publishes Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament

1516 Pietro Pomponazzi’s On the Immortality of the Soul

2.3.1.3 Renaissance Art

AD c. 1255-1319 Duccio di Buoninsegna

c. 1276-1337 Giotto

1337-1466 Filippo Brunelleschi

c. 1386-1466 Donatello

1387-1455 Fra Angelico

1401-1428 Masaccio

1404-1472 Leon Battista Alberti

c. 1426-1492 Piero della Francesca

c. 1430-1516 Giovanni Bellini

1431-1506 Andrea Mantegna

1444-1510 Botticelli

1444-1514 Bramante

1452-1519 Leonardo da Vinci

1471-1528 Albrecht Dürer

1475-1564 Michelangelo

1477-1576 Titian

c. 1478-1510 Giorgione

1483-1520 Raphael

1494-1534 Correggio

1511-1574 Giorgio Vasari

1518-1590 Andrea Palladio

1518-1594 Tintoretto

1528-1588 Paolo Veronese

2.3.1.4 The Reformation: Doctrine

AD 1505 Martin Luther joins the Augustinian Order

1512 Luther appointed professor of Holy Scriptures at the University of Wittenberg

1516 First edition of the New Testament in Greek

1517 Luther’s theses against indulgences

1518 Zwingli called to be minister at Zurich

1520 Luther’s Open Letter to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On Christian Liberty; Luther’s excommunication

1521 Diet of Worms

1524 Erasmus defends the freedom of the will against Luther

1525 Conrad Grebel baptizes Georg Blaurock: the beginning of Anabaptism; the Reformation established in Zurich

1527 The Schleitheim Confession, first Anabaptist doctrinal statement

1529 Colloquy of Marburg

1531 Death of Zwingli at the Battle of Kappel

1534 First complete edition of Luther’s translation of the Bible

1546 Death of Martin Luther

1564 Death of John Calvin

2.3.1.5 The Reformation: Society

AD 1509-1547 Reign of Henry VIII of England

1515-1547 Reign of Francis I of France

1516 Concordat at Bologna

1519 Election of Charles V as Emperor

1521 Diet of Worms: beginning of Hapsburg-Valois wars

1524-1525 Peasant Revolt in Germany

1525 Battle of Pavia; Francis I taken prisoner

1526 Defeat of Hungarians by the Turks at the Battle of Mohács

1527 Sack of Rome by an imperial army

1528 Basel and Berne accept Reformation

1530 Diet of Augsburg; German Protestant princes declare faith in the Augsburg Confession

1534 Day of Placards; Act of Supremacy

1538 Geneva accepts the Reformation

1540 Society of Jesus approved by the pope

1542 Roman Inquisition established

1545 Opening of the Council of Trent

1546 Death of Martin Luther

1547 Battle of Milberg: Charles V defeats the Protestant Schmalkaldic League

1547-1553 Reign of Edward VI of England

1547-1559 Reign of Henry II of France

1553-1558 Reign of Mary of England

1555 Religious Peace of Augsburg on the principle of cuius regio, eius religio

1556 Abdication of Charles V in Spain and Empire; accession of Phillip II of Spain

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis: end of Hapsburg-Valois wars

2.3.1.6 The Counter Reformation

AD 1528 Founding of the Capuchin order

1536 Commission of Cardinals established by Pope Paul III to reform the papal court

1540 Founding of the Society of Jesus

1542 Roman Inquisition established by the papal bull Licot ab initio

1545-1547 First session of the Council of Trent

1548 Publication of the Spiritual Exercises by St. Ignatius of Loyola

1549 Death of Pope Paul III

1551-1552 Second session of the Council of Trent

1555 The Peace of Augsburg, religious-political settlement of Germany; Gian Caraffa elected as Pope Paul IV

1558 Diego Laynez elected general of the Society of Jesus

1559 Death of Pope Paul III

1560 Carlo Borromeo launches Catholic model reform as archbishop of Milan

1562 Neo-Scholasticism stimulated by publication of the Loci Theologici of Melchor Cano

1562-1563 Third and final session of the Council of Trent

1564 Revised Index of Prohibited Books promulgated by Pope Pius IV

1568 St. John of the Cross founds the discalced Carmelites

1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France

1573 Veronese called before the Inquisition to defend the orthodoxy of his painting

1575 St. Philip Neri reforms and extends the Oratory

1582 Death of St. Theresa of Avila

1584 Publication of the Jesuit educational program, the Ratio Studiorum

1586 Robert Bellarmine publishes Volume I of Disputation of the Heretics of Our Times

1609 St. Francis of Sales publishes the Introduction to the Devout Life

1629 Edict of Restitution restores much land to the Roman Church in Germany

1648 Peace of Westphalia

2.3.2 Building the Early Modern State

2.3.2.1 The Golden Age of Spain

AD 1545 Opening of Potosi mines, Bolivia

1556 Abdication of Charles V; his son, Philip II, becomes king of Spain

1557 Bankruptcy of Spanish Crown

1568 Outbreak of revolt in Netherlands

1571 Victory of Lepanto, against Turks; repression of revolt of the Moriscos

1575 El Greco arrives in Spain

1579 Disgrace and arrest of principal minister, Antonio Pérez

1584 Direct Spanish intervention into French civil wars

1587 Sir Francis Drake destroys Spanish fleet at Cádiz

1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada

1591 Revolt of Aragon

1597 Bankruptcy of the Spanish Crown

1598 Death of Phillip II: Phillip III, his son, becomes king; Lope de Vega presents Arcadia

1605 Cervantes publishes Part I of Don Quixote

1609 Expulsion of the Meriscos

1612 Suárez publishes De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore

1616 Spanish forced to leave Japan

1621 Rise to power of Count Duke Olivares

1628 Zurbarán, the painting of St. Serapion

1630 Velázquez completes painting Vulcan’s Forge

1640 Revolt of Catalans and Portuguese

1643 Defeat of Spanish army by French at Rocroi

2.3.2.2 The Rise of the Dutch Republic

AD 1556 Abdication of Charles V of Hapsburg as Lord of the Netherlands; succession of Philip II of Spain

1559 Philip II leaves Netherlands and returns to Spain, which becomes center of his government; beginning of opposition of higher nobility against government of king’s confidants in the Netherlands

1566-1567 First outbreaks of large-scale revolts as well as iconoclastic movements against the Church; Philip II sends the Duke of Alva to suppress the uprising; William of Orange flees the country

1572 Successful attack of William of Orange, who occupies provinces of Holland and Zeeland

1576 Other provinces join the rebellion [Pacification of Ghent]

1579 Walloon nobility defects from the rebellion [Treaty of Arras]; Alexander of Parma commander of the Spanish troops

1581 Revolutionary Estates General depose Philip II as Lord of the Netherlands

1584 Assassination of William of Orange

1585 Parma takes Antwerp; rebels withdraw behind the great rivers

1588-1609 Dutch drive the Spanish out of northern Netherlands; attempts at liberation of the south fail

1609-1621 Truce between Republic of the United Netherlands and Spain

1625-1648 The Republic joins the anti-Spanish coalition

1648 Peace of Westphalia; de jure recognition of independence of the Republic

2.3.2.3 The Collapse of France

AD 1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis; death of Henry II

1561 Colloquium of Poissy

1562 Outbreak of civil war between Protestants and royal troops

1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

1574 Death of Charles IX; assembly of Millau, establishes firmer government for French Protestants

1576 Jean Bodin publishes Six Books for the Republic; Estates General of Blois, seeks religious compromise and fails

1578 Duke of Anjou invades Low Countries; founding of the Order of the Holy Spirit

1579 Publication of the Vindiciae contre Tyrannes

1580 Publication of the first edition of the Essays of Montaigne

1587 Battle of Coutras, first pitched battle won by the Protestants

1588 Revolt of Paris against Henry III

1589 Assassination of the Guises on Henry III’s orders; assassination of Henry III

1590 Battle of Ivey, victory of Henry IV against the Catholic League

1593 Henry IV abjures Protestantism

1595 Henry IV absolved of his heresy by Pope Clement VIII

1597 Siege of Amiens

1598 Treaty of Vervins, ends war between France and Spain; Edict of Nantes

2.3.2.4 Elizabethans and Puritans

AD 1485 Battle of Bosworth; accession of Henry VII

1509 Death of Henry VII; accession of Henry VIII

1529 Fall of Cardinal Wolsey

1529-1536 Reformation of Parliament

1536-1540 Execution of Thomas Cromwell

1547 Death of Henry VIII; accession of Edward VI

1553 Death of Edward VI; accession of Mary I

1558 Death of Mary I; accession of Elizabeth I

1563 Thirty-Nine Articles; Statute of Apprentices

1570 Elizabeth I excommunicated by Pope Pius V

1587 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots

1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada

1600 East India Company Chartered

1603 Death of Elizabeth I; accession of James I

1611 Authorized Version [King James Version] of the Bible

1618 Beginning of Thirty Years’ War

1625 Death of James I; accession of Charles I

1628 Petition of Right adopted; assassination of the Duke of Buckingham

1629-1640 Period of personal rule: the “Eleven Years’ Tyranny”

1640 Short Parliament [April-May]; Long Parliament convenes in November

1641 Execution of the Earl of Strafford; Irish Rebellion begins

1643 Death of John Pym

1642-1646 First Civil War

1645 Execution of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury

1648 Second Civil War; Pride’s Purge

1649 Execution of Charles I

1653-1658 Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell

1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell; succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard

1660 Restoration of Charles II

1662 Beginning of the “Bartholomew Ejections” following Act of Uniformity; expulsion of ministers creates English Nonconformity

1670 Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles II and Louis XIV

1678 Popish Plot

1679 Habeas Corpus Act

1679-1681 Exclusion crisis

1681-1685 Charles II rules without Parliament

1685 Death of Charles II; accession of James II

1688-1689 Glorious Revolution replaces James II with William of Orange and Mary; Bill of Rights; Mutiny Act; Toleration Act

1689-1697 War of the League of Augsburg [King William’s War]

1694 Bank of England chartered; Triennial Act; Death of Queen Mary

1697 Treaty of Ryswick

1701 Act of Settlement

1702 Death of William III; accession of Queen Anne

1702-1713 War of the Spanish Succession [Queen Anne’s War]

1707 Act of Union with Scotland

1713 Treaty of Utrecht

1714 Death of Queen Anne; accession of King George I

1721 Sir Robert Walpole becomes Prime Minister

2.3.2.5 The Thirty Years’ War

AD 1612 Ferdinand II becomes king of Hungary and Bohemia

1618 Defenestration of Prague

1620 Battle of White Mountain

1621 End of the Spanish-Dutch truce

1623 Maximilian of Bavaria receives electoral vote held previously by Palatinate

1624 Richelieu enters and soon dominates royal council; French-Dutch treaty

1626 Defeat pf Danish troops in Brunswick by Count Tilly

1629 Edict of Restitution

1630 Electoral Assembly of Regensburg insists on Wallenstein’s resignation; Gustavus Adolphus lands in northern Germany, is subsidized by France

1631 Capture and massacre of Magdeburg

1632 Battle of Lützen, Hapsburg defeat; death of Gustavus Adolphus

1634 Assassination of Wallenstein

1635 Treaty of Prague; French declaration of war against Spain

1636 Capture of Corbie by the Spanish

1639 Revolt of the Nu-Pieds in France

1640 Revolts of the Catalans and the Portuguese

1643 Defeat of the Spanish by the French at the Battle of Rocroi; war between Denmark and Sweden

1646 Invasion of Bavaria by Swedish and French troops

1648 Peace of Westphalia

2.3.2.6 The Rise of Modern Political Thought

AD 1494 Invasion of Italy by French troops

1513-1521 Niccolò Machiavelli writes The Prince and The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy

1517 Martin Luther posts 95 theses on church door at Wittenberg; Reformation usually dated from this moment

1525 Sack of Rome

1562-1594 Series of religious wars in France

1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in Paris, slaughter of the Huguenots

1576 Jean Bodin publishes Six Books of the Republic

1594 Henry IV takes Paris

1610 Henry IV is assassinated

1618-1648 Thirty Years’ War

1642 Civil war begins in England

1649 Charles I of England beheaded

1651 Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan

1656 James Harrington publishes The Commonwealth of Oceana

1658 Oliver Cromwell dies

1660 Restoration of the monarchy in England; Charles II [1660-1685]

1661 Louis XIV of France assumes sole rule after Mazarin

1670 Baruch [Benedict de] Spinoza publishes, anonymously, Tractacus Theologico-Politicus

1685-1688 Reign of James II in England

1688-1689 Glorious Revolution; James II dethroned; William and Mary

1690 John Locke publishes Two Treatises of Civil Government, published ten years before

2.3.3 Toward One World

2.3.3.1 The Commercial Powers

AD 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides overseas world between Spain and Portugal

1570’s First raids by English and Dutch on Spanish empire in South America; breakdown of Portuguese monopoly in the Indian Ocean

1600 Foundation of the English East India Company

1602 Foundation of the Dutch East India Company

1609 Foundation of the Bank of Amsterdam

1619 Foundation of the Bank of Hamburg

1621 Foundation of the Dutch West India Company

1624 Dutch drive English out of spice trade in the East Indies

1629 Dutch obtain rights to trade at Arkhangelsk

1635 Foundation of Compagnie française des îles d’Amerique

1639 English establish themselves in Madras

1651 Navigation Acts in England, directed against Dutch trade

1652-1674 Period of Anglo-Dutch wars; peace of 1674 results in division of colonial spheres between England and Holland, in which America goes to England and East Indies go to Holland

1689-1713 Period of Anglo-Dutch coalition wars against France of Louis XIV

1713 Peace of Utrecht gives England trading rights in Spanish American empire; decline of the Dutch

2.3.3.2 The Ottoman Empire

AD 1326-1359 Reign of Orkhan I

1359-1389 Reign of Murad I

1365 Ottoman capital shifted to Andrinople in Thrace

1371 Ottoman defeat of the Serbs on the Marica

1389 First Battle of Kossovo

1402 Defeat of Bajazet I Yilderim by Tamerlane

1444 Ottoman defeat of the Christian “Crusade” at Varna

1448 Second Battle of Kossovo

1451-1481 Reign of Muhammad II the Conqueror

1453 Ottoman capture of Constantinople by Muhammad II the Conqueror

1514 Ottoman defeat of the Safavids at Caldiran

1517 Ottoman capture of Cairo; surrender of Mecxa

1520-1566 Reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent[Kanuni]

1521 Ottoman capture of Belgrade

1522 Ottoman capture of Rhodes

1526 Ottoman defeat of the Hungarians at Mohács

1529 First Ottoman siege of Vienna; Ottomans acquire Algerian bases

1534 Ottoman capture of Tabriz and Iraq

1536 Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France

1547 Larger part of Hungary ceded to the Ottomans

1555 Ottoman-Safavid peace

1571 Battle of Lepanto

1606 Peace of Sitvartorok

1630 Memorandum of Koça Bey

1641-1687 Reign of Muhammad IV; abolition of the devşirme

1656-1676 Ottoman revival under Köprülü viziers

1683 Second Ottoman siege of Vienna

1696 Capture of Azov by Peter the Great

1697 Eugene of Savoy’s defeat of the Ottomans at Zenta

1699 Peace of Karlowitz

1703-1730 Cultural revival under Ahmed III

1718 Peace of Passarowitz

1724-1730 Victories of Nadir Shah in Transcaucasia

1757-1774 Reign of Mustafa III; Ayans granted official status

1774 Treaty of Kuçuk Kaynarca

1783 Russian annexation of the Crimea

1792 Treaty of Jassy

1793 Selim III proclaims the “New Order”

1798-1799 Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt

1801 Russian annexation of Georgia

1804 Serbian revolt

1822-1830 Greek war of independence

1826 Massacre of the Janissaries; Ottoman fleet sunk at Navarino

1829 Treaty of Andrinople

1833 Treaty of Unkiar-skellessi

1840 Treaty of London concedes Egypt to Muhammad Ali

1841 Straits Convention

1853-1856 Crimean War

1856 Hatt-i Humayun

1876 Mihrdat Pasa proclaims the Ottoman Constitution

1877 Ottoman Constitution allowed to lapse

1878 Congress of Berlin

1883 Creation of Public Debt Control

1908 Formation of the Committee of Union and Progress [Young Turks]; Constitution Restored

1909 Deposition of Abdul-Hamid II

2.3.3.3 European Voyages of Exploration

AD 1415 Portuguese capture of Ceuta

1433 Cape Bojador rounded by Gil Eannes

1482 Building of Elmina Castle [São Jorge de Mina]

1484 Discovery of Congo estuary by Diogo Cão

1488 Doubling of Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias

1492 Discovery of America [Bahama Islands] by Christopher Columbus

1494 Treaty of Tordesillas

1497 Voyage to North America by John Cabot

1497-1498 Voyage to Calicut [India] by Vasco da Gama

1500 Discovery of Brazil by Pedro Cabral

1510 Portuguese capture of Goa

1513 First sighting of the Pacific by Núñez de Balboa

1519-1521 Conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortéz

1519-1522 Circumnavigation of the world: begun by Ferdinand Magellan, completed by Sebastián del Cano

1529 Treaty of Zaragosa

1531-1648 Conquest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro

1534-1535 Exploration of Gulf of St. Lawrence by Jacques Cartier

1553 Voyage to Archangel by Richard Chancellor

1576-1578 Search for the Northwest Passage by Martin Frobisher

1585 Planting of first English colony in North America: Roanoke Island, North Carolina

1596 Voyage of William Barents to Novaya Zemlya

1600 Founding of the English East India Company

1602 Founding of the Netherlands East India Company

1606 Discovery of Australia by Willem Janszoon

1642 Discovery of Tasmania and New Zealand by Abel Tasman

2.3.3.4 India: 1500-1700

AD 1510 Portuguese capture of Goa

1526 Defeat of the Lodi Sultan by Babur

1526-1530 Reign of Babur

1530-1538 Reign of Humayun

1538 Death of Guru Nanak

1538-1555 Interregnum under Sur dynasty

1555-1556 Humayun restores Mughal authority

1556-1605 Reign of Akbar

1565 Fall of Vijayanagar

1600 British East India Company receives charter

1605-1627 Reign of Jehangir

1628-1658 Reign of Shah Jahan

1634 English begin trading in Bengal

1639 Founding of Fort St. George, Madras

1658-1707 Reign of Aurangzeb

1674 Shivaji crowned king of Marathas; French found Pondicherry

1690 Founding of Calcutta

1708 Death of Guru Govind Singh

1739 Nadir Shah raids Delhi

1742 Marathas raid Bengal

1744-1748 War between French and British in India

2.3.3.5 Japan and China

AD 1542 Portuguese merchants first reach Japan

1568 Oda Nobunaga in control of Kyoto

1582 Nobunaga assassinated; rise of Hideyoshi

1592, 1597 Abortive Japanese attempts to conquer Korea

1597 First persecution of Christians in Japan

1598 Death of Hideyoshi

1600 Tokugawa Ieyasu victor at Sekigahara

1603 Establishment of Tokugawa shogunate

1638 Suppression of Christian rebellion at Shimabara

1640 Seclusion and exclusion policies in effect

Early 17^th cent. Unification of Manchu tribes of China by Nurhachi

1644 Peking captured by Manchus and made capital of the Ch’ing Dynasty

1661-1722 Reign of K’ang-hsi Emperor in China

1675-1683 Ch’ing conquest of south China

1688-1704 Cultural brilliance during Genroku calendrical era in Japan

1736-1796 Reign of Ch’ien-lung Emperor in China

1793 Mission of Lord Macartney to Peking

1853 Perry expedition forces end of Japanese exclusion policy

1867 Abdication of last Tokugawa shogun

2.3.3.6 Aztec and Inca Civilizations

BC 5000 Beginnings of agriculture in Mexico

2000 First Peruvian ceremonial centers

900 Chavin unification of Peru

800 Olmec unification of Mesoamerica

AD 300-600 Teotihuacan empire

600-800 Huari and Tiahuanaco empires

900 Fall of classic Maya civilization

1400-1519 Aztec empire

1438-1538 Inca empire

2.3.3.7 Spain and Portugal in America

AD 1492 Columbus reaches the New World

1500 Cabral lays basis for Portugal’s claim by landing in Brazil on his way to India

1519 Cortéz begins his conquest of New Spain [Mexico]

1524 Council of the Indies established by Spain

1535 Antonio de Mendoza, first viceroy in Spanish America, begins rule in Mexico; Lima, Peru, is founded by Pizarro

1549 Permanent settlement of Brazil begun by Governor Thomé de Souza, and the Jesuits begin missionary labors

1550 Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés Sepúlvada debate at Valladolid whether Indians are natural slaves according to Aristotle’s doctrine

1551 University charters granted for universities in Mexico and Peru

1580 Philip II annexes Portugal and her empire, a “captivity” lasting until 1640

1624 Dutch begin their 30-year rule in Pernambuco, Brazil

1680 Publication of the Spanish colonial code: Recopilación de Leyes de las Indias

1759 Jesuits expelled from Brazil

1767 Jesuits expelled from Spanish America

1780 Unsuccessful rebellion by Tupac Amaru against Spanish rule in Peru

2.3.3.8 The Settlement of North America

AD 1497 John Cabot reaches North America

1513 Ponce de Léon establishes Spanish claim to Florida

1524 Giovanni Verrazano explores coast of North America

1534 Jacques Cartier explores St. Lawrence River

1560’s French attempts to settle in Florida thwarted by Spain

1565 Spanish found first permanent settlement north of Mexico at St. Augustine, Florida

1607 First permanent English outpost established at Jamestown, Virginia

1609 Henry Hudson claims part of North America for the United Provinces

1619 First Negroes brought to British America as forced labor; Virginia begins representative assembly

1620 Separatists found Plymouth Colony

1630 Great Migration to America begins; Massachusetts founded

1630’s Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Haven colonies founded

1633 Colonization of Maryland begun

1636 Harvard College opened

1638 A Swedish settlement founded on the Delaware River

1640’s Civil wars in England causes shift in migration patterns

1655 Dutch from New Netherlands conquer New Sweden

1660 Stuart Monarchy restored

1660’s Legal definition of Negro slavery begun in Virginia

1663 Charles II grants Carolinas to eight proprietors

1664 British seize New Netherlands

1675-1676 Bacon’s rebellion in Virginia; King Philip’s War in New England

1682 William Penn founds Pennsylvania

1684-1689 Dominion of New England places several colonies under royal authority

1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France spurs Protestant migration to America

1689-1713 King William’s War

1691 New Massachusetts’s charter puts colony under royal authority; Plymouth Colony and Maine included in new Massachusetts boundaries

1693 College of William and Mary founded

1696 Parliamentary Act establishes vice-admiralty courts to try violators; Board of Trade created by the crown

1702-1713 Queen Anne’s War

1704 Boston News-Letter begins publication

1729 North and South Carolina become separate, royal colonies

1733 Colony of Georgia founded

1739 George Whitefield first visits America

1740-1748 King George’s War

1749-1752 Benjamin Franklin experiments with electricity

1751 Philadelphia Academy [later University of Pennsylvania] founded

1754 George Washington’s clash with French soldiers signals start of French and Indian War

1763 Treaty of Paris; French Canada and Spanish Florida ceded to Great Britain

2.3.4 The Enlightenment

2.3.4.1 The Scientific Revolution

BC 4^th cent. Establishment of the two major philosophical schools of Greek Antiquity by Plato [427-347 BC] and Aristotle [384-322 BC]

3^rd cent. Outstanding developments in mathematics, astronomy and physics, among others by Euclid of Alexandria [330-260 BC,] Aristech’s of Samoa [310-230 BC,] and Apollonius of Perga [c. 220 BC]

AD 2^nd cent. The synthesis of Greek astronomical thought, presented in his Almagest, by Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria [AD 127-151]

8^th-12^th cents. Development and spread of Arabic science and philosophy; eventually of the transmission of Aristotelian thought to the West by Islamic scholars, in particular by Averroes [1126-1198.] Origin of the base-10 number system in the work of Arabic and Hindu mathematicians of 8^th-11^th centuries

13th cent. Assimilation of Aristotelian philosophy into Christian doctrine in the epochal writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. Beginning of modern number notation attributed Liber abaci published by Leonardo of Pisa [Fibonacci] in 1202

1543 Publication of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium by Nicholas Copernicus, Mikolaj Kopernik in Polish [1473-1543,] and also of Concerning the Fabric of the Human Body by Andrea Vesalius, Andries Van Wesel in Flemish [1514-1564]

1600 Publication of Concerning the Magnet [De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure, “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet of the Earth,”] by the English physician William Gilbert [1540-1603]

1603 Founding of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome

1605 Publication of Advancement of Learning by Francis Bacon [1561-1626]

1609 Publication of Astronomia Nova by Johannes Kepler [1571-1630,] containing his statement of the first two laws of planetary motion

1610 Publication of Sidereal Messenger by Galileo Galilei [1564-1642,] describing his telescopic observations of the heavens

1619 Publication of Kepler’s Harmonia Mundia, announcing his discovery of the third law of planetary motion

1628 Publication of On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals by the English physician William Harvey [1578-1657]

1632 Publication of Galileo’s Two Chief Systems of the World, in which Galileo argued [his conviction] for the Copernican system over the Ptolemaic and which resulted in a case being brought against him by the Inquisition

1637 Publication of the Discourse on Method by René Descartes [1596-1650]

1638 Publication of Galileo’s Discourses and Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences, in which he formulated an early and insightful though erroneous theory of solid mechanics [the bending and breaking of beams] and a theory with experiment of motion under uniform acceleration and of the pendulum which though limited to simple motions and dynamically incomplete was an important precursor to the work of Newton

1647 Revival of the ancient Epicurean atomic philosophy by Pierre Gassendi [1592-1655]

1657 Founding of the Accademia del Cimento in Florence

1660 Publication of New Experiments of Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of Air by the Anglo-Irish chemist and natural philosopher Robert Boyle [1627-1691]

1662 Founding of the Royal Society of London

1666 Founding of the French Academy of Science

1676 Determination of the finite velocity of light by the Danish astronomer Oleg Roemer [1644-1710]

1677 Discovery with the microscope of the existence of male spermatozoa by Anton von Leeuwenhoek [1632-1695]

1678 A wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens [1629-1695,] subsequently developed systematically in his Treatise on Light [1690]

1687 Publication of Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis by Isaac Newton [1642-1727]

1704 Publication of Newton’s Opticks, some of whose basic ideas had been communicated to the Royal Society in 1672

1789 Publication of Traité Elémentaire de Chimie by Antoine Lavoisier [1743-1794]

2.3.4.2 Society and Politics

AD 1713-1715 Peace of Utrecht; death of Louis XIV; Vanbrugh’s Blenheim Palace completed

1721 Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos completed; Montesquieu’s Persian Letters

1724 Fahrenheit’s thermometer devised

1734 Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters on the English

1748 Montesquieu’s Esprit des Lois

1750 The Encyclopédie begun; the Diplomatic Revolution

1752 Franklin shows that lightning is electricity

1756-1763 Seven Years’ War

1762 Rousseau’s Social Contract

1764 The Italian criminologist Beccaria’s On Crimes and Punishments, a celebrated volume on the reform of criminal justice

1765-1790 Enlightened despots in Austria, Germany, Spain, Portugal, and France

1776 Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations; American Declaration of Independence

1778 Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais’ “private fleet” mustered I aid of rebelling Americans

1783 Beaumarchais’ Marriage of Figaro

1787-1788 Assembly of Notables; censorship lifted; Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès’ What Is the Third Estate?

1789 Outbreak of revolution in France

2.3.4.3 Science versus Theology

AD 1687 Newton’s Principia Mathematica

1690 John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding

1697 Pierre Bayle’s Dictionnaire historique et critique

1704 Death of John Locke

1713 The papal bull Unigenitus condemning 101 theological propositions of the Jansenist writer Pasquier Quesnel contained in the book Réflexions morales; the war against the Jesuits

1733-1734 Alexander Pope’s Essay on Man

1736 Joseph Butler’s Analogy of Religion

1736 Voltaire’s Mahomet, on toleration, praised and rewarded by the pope

1747 Julien Offroy de La Mettrie’s L'Homme-machine [Man a Machine – a materialist interpretation of human and psychic phenomena, important in the modern history of materialism]

1748 Hume’s Essay on Miracles; Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle; Montesquieu’s Esprit de Lois

1750 ff. Georges-louis Leclerc De Buffon’s Natural History [evolutionary theory]

1750-1772 Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert’s Encyclopédie

1751 Voltaire’s Age of Louis XIV

1756 Voltaire’s Essay on the Customs and Manners of Nations

1760 ff. Dictionnaire de Trévoux, Jesuit response to Encyclopédie

1762 Rousseau’s Confession of Faith of a Priest from Savoy

1764-1765 Voltaire’s Candide and Dictionairre philosophique portative

1778 Mesmer and mesmerism; death of Rousseau

1779 Hume’s posthumously published Dialogues on Natural Religion

2.4 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

2.4.1 Europe: The Great Powers

2.4.1.1 Forming Nation States

AD 1581 Proclamation of Dutch independence from Spain

1594 Henry of Navarre crowned Henry IV of France

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 HISTORY: INTRODUCTION

1.1 REFERENCE