ࡱ> 5@ gbjbj22 ϟ XX{[' ZZZ[,2nrop(pppP"ƔTdrfrfrfrfrfrfr$itRvr}Lr pp r. ^ppdrdr&:6>ZNzpo `@Z<6q|r0r:@zrz8z<4pr z<Ȟ|Ddfrr.d.Journey in Being ANIL MITRA, COPYRIGHT 2007  DATE \@ "MMMM yyyy" September 2007 PRINTING Contents JOURNEY IN BEING 2 FOUNDATION 5 First things 5 Theory of Being 5 Being 5 Metaphysics 19 Objects 33 Logic and meaning 35 Mind 38 Cosmology 40 Human World 43 Human being 45 Social world 47 War and peace 51 Civilization and history 52 The highest ideal 52 Faith 52 JOURNEY 58 The idea of a journey 58 An individual journey 58 Ambition 58 Journey in being 58 Narrative 58 Ideas 58 Introduction 58 Principles of thought and action 58 Philosophy and metaphysics 58 Problems in metaphysics 60 A system of human knowledge 61 Transformation 62 Introduction 62 History of transformation 62 Basis and theory of transformation 62 System of experiments 62 Transformation so far. Designs 62 Material design 62 The Future 62 Refining the ideas 62 The way ahead 63 Index 64 The author 67 Conventions Conventions used in the text. The words used for the concepts in the narrative are often common words. When a common philosophical use is employed, the lower case form is used. When words or phrases are used in their meaning as specified in this narrative, Title Case form is employed. It is typical and convenient, in thought and in talking, to not distinguish concepts or words from the objects to which they refer. When it is useful to distinguish a concept from its reference, especially when the reference is immanent in the world, Title Case may be used for the object of reference In English, the first letter of the first word of a sentence is capitalized and, therefore, there may be ambiguity when the first word of a sentence is a common name that is used in its common and special senses. The potential ambiguity does not appear to be problematic when it is recognized that most of the central conceptsbeing, metaphysics, object, logic, meaning and so onhave both common and special senses Foundation and Journey are first and second of two parts which have three and six divisions, respectively. Each division may have a number of chapters. Italics are used when referring to parts of the narrative e.g. Foundation, divisions e.g. Theory of Being, and chapters e.g. Metaphysics. When italics are used for emphasis, title case is not used In the narrative, They may be used instead of I as a device to avoid intrusion of ego without foregoing its empowerment Journey in Being Journey XE "Journey"  in Being XE "Being"  is a journey in ideas and transformation XE "Transformation" . The ideas, which form a partial foundation for transformation, are the subject of Foundation XE "Foundation" the first part of the narrative. The second part, Journey, narrates transformation so far and thoughts and designs toward further transformation Foundation XE "Foundation"  paints and grounds or justifies a picture of beingof the universe. This picture has been glimpsed in the history XE "History"  of ideas but has not previously given a foundation or developed and elaborated systematically. A reader who is not aware that a new picture is being developedwhose elements appear in Being XE "Being"  and whose main development is in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , may feel disoriented by the distance between the sense of being in this narrative and the common picture of being in the modern world. While the picture is grounded in Metaphysics, reference is made to it throughout the narrative and the following orientation to its context XE "Context"  will be useful in understanding the picture and the narrative: The picture is a formal metaphysics and its elaboration. However, it is pertinent that it has not been the primary goal of the journey XE "Journey"  to develop a pictureformal or otherwise. The remaining comments of this paragraph are intended to assist readers in negotiating the dual objectives that result from having more than one goal and therefore more than one set of criteria for Foundation XE "Foundation" . The first goal is transformation XE "Transformation"  of beingof realization of ultimates or, at least, to have a vision of ultimates and to travel in that direction. Understanding XE "Understanding"  and knowing are part of transformation and, therefore, development of the Foundation has been part of the journey. However, actualphysical and othertransformation is the overarching goal. In pursuit of this goal, the question, not new in the history XE "History"  of thought, has come to the forefront whether understanding can andor should be independent of transformation or action. It is not been a goal to base the Foundation in some medium between the needs of understanding and knowledge on one hand and transformation on the other. Instead, there have been two rather parallel tracks of development. In one, it has been sought to keep the topics of Foundation as independent of its uses as possible. In the second, the needs of transformation and action have informed the developments within Foundation and attitudes toward it in particular and knowledge and understanding in general. This track is not a pragmatic system for it is not asserted that use is the final measure of validity of knowledge but that knowledge and use remain in interaction and are so interwoven that the notion of validity may have no universal application... Platonism XE "Platonism"  includes the view that a perfect system of understanding may be achievedthat knowledge need not ever be in a process of development, that it may be independent of action and context XE "Context" . This view, which is often tacitly assumed and tacitly encouraged by the concept of authority in education XE "Education" , has been held in critical light in the modern period of philosophyespecially, since Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" s influence XE "Influence"  in analytic philosophy XE "Philosophy:Analytic" . However, it is difficult to overcome tacit habits of thought and modern and recent philosophy XE "Philosophy:Recent" especially analytic philosophyremain, significantly, worlds unto themselves. One aspect of the system of this narrative is that it should not remain a system unto itself The picture of the universe developed and grounded is, if valid, one of an infinitely deeper truth XE "Truth"  and greater variety than is normally assigned to the universe, e.g., in religious, modern physical, or even metaphysical cosmologies. However, it is not the intent here to invalidate or, particularly, to validate those cosmologies. Instead, the new picture or cosmology locates the valid parts of the received cosmologies in within its boundaries. If the intent of a religious cosmology is to be metaphorical and the content of a physical cosmology is regarded as real, then, although those cosmologies have validity within certain imprecisely defined boundaries, the depth XE "Depth"  of their truth is an infinitesimal fraction of depth of Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and their domains of validity infinitesimal in relation to the ultimate domain revealed in Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  The grounding of the picture of the universe developed here is a necessary or logical grounding. This grounding does not invalidate the received pictures or cosmologies but places them in a larger, ultimate context XE "Context"  and helps to show the origins and limits of the systems they describe. The reader is invited to follow the arguments, to challenge them, to verify or disverify them to his or her satisfaction. The narrative itself raises challenges to its own arguments and the status of these challenges is taken up in the narrative While the development required reconceptualization of ideas from the history XE "History"  of thought, the words used to refer to the reconceived ideas and even new ideas are usually older words. Therefore, careful attention to the meanings introduced in the narrative is essential to its understanding The metaphysics that grounds these developments is one of ultimate depth XE "Depth"  and breadth The primitive concepts of the logical part of the metaphysics are beingwhatever exists, universe or all being, the void or absence of being, and form. Being XE "Being"  and Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  develop the metaphysics around these ideas. Here, a suggestion of the power XE "Power"  of the ideas may be illuminating; demonstration, elaboration and application, and development of meaning and significance is taken up in the body of the narrative. It is common, especially in scientific cosmology, for the word universe to refer to the known universe and, perhaps, extrapolations from it. As all being, the present concept of the universe is rather different. The question of how it is possible to talk of and know the universe in its present conception is discussed in Being, Metaphysics and Objects XE "Object" . In the present conception of universe, there is nothing outside it. This implies, first, that everythingincluding all form, pattern XE "Pattern"  and lawand not just every thing is in the universe and, second, that any foundation for secure knowledge of the universe must lie in it. Being has and can have no further foundation and, therefore, requires no further foundation; the universe has and can have no external creator. As corollary to the inclusion of all form, pattern and law in the universe, the voidwhose existence XE "Existence"  is shown latercontains no form, pattern or law. Therefore, since the exclusion XE "Exclusion"  of a logical possibility would be a law of the void, the variety of being in the universe must contain every logical possibility and this fact is constitutive of the ultimate breadth of the metaphysics. Every form must have being and is immanent in being but there is and can be no Platonic world XE "Platonism:There is no Platonic world"  of forms outside the one universe. It also follows that the void may be regarded as the source of all being and, though this is a rough and incomplete statement of the truth XE "Truth"  and provides no more than a hint of its power, it is here that the ultimate depth XE "Depth"  of the metaphysics lies Where does the local cosmology XE "Cosmology:Local"  fit into the general metaphysics? (1) The infinite variety of the entire universeall beingrevealed in the metaphysics does not appear to be characteristic of thislocalworld. According to the metaphysics, limitation of the behavior of the universe to that of thislocalcosmology is impossible. The observed behavior of this cosmos is an example of normal behaviorwithin its context XE "Context" , deviant behavior, which would be impossible if the observed laws of the cosmos were the laws of the universe, are merely but highly improbable; and, within that context, it is merely but highly probable that the observed laws will describe all behavior. (2) Within the one universe, an event occurs or it does not; if it does it is possible; if it does not, there is no other comparison world where it could occur and, therefore, it is impossible. Therefore, the possible and the actualover all time and space XE "Time and space:Space" are identical; from the previous paragraph, possibility is logical possibilitycomparison with other meanings of possibility is taken up later. (3) The individual is immediately tied into the world via his or her experience. These points and others will be discussed in demonstrative detail the body of the narrative. For now, they may be summarized by acknowledging that the concepts of the normal, of the identity of the actual and the possible, and of experience are among the concepts that reveal the place of the local cosmos in the universe As a result of the development of the metaphysics, it has been possible to raise the understanding of substance XE "Substance"  and form, objectsconcrete and abstractand identity, logic XE "Logic" , meaning, mind, cosmology, human world, morals and ethics XE "Morals:Ethics" , faith, real possibilities in the transformations of being and identity, as well as a number topics of lesser significance or breadth to new levels relative to the history XE "History"  of thought. These levels are often ultimate in nature These developments have derived inspiration XE "Inspiration"  from and employed analogy with many disciplines from the history XE "History"  of human knowledgeand, in turn, have implications for these disciplines which include not only the philosophical such as metaphysics and logic XE "Logic" . The sources include the entire range of knowledgethe sciences including the sciences of physics, biology, and mind; the symbolic systemslanguage XE "Language" , logic, and mathematics XE "Mathematics" ; and art, history, faith and religion XE "Faith:Religion" ; the extent of study has not been uniform over these disciplines. It is relevant to understanding the development here that the exposure described constitutes a resource that has provided an intuitive background for the development that has made it possible to proceed without reference to or use of specific examples. While this does not at all constitute a formal deficiency of the developments, the reader who lacks the exposure may experience an absence of context XE "Context"  and orientation in reading the narrative Regarding the metaphysics and the other topics, elaboration of its application and refinement of the levels continues The beliefs of the present time may be regarded as roughly defined by science XE "Science" , religion XE "Faith:Religion" , and secular humanismthe latter is a way of thinking based in human values that accepts scientific cosmology and is a modern replacement for religion. These beliefs do not form a coherent system and, where they intersect, may stand in conflict with regard to fact, significance and value. Assertions of the preceding kind are subject to lack in the definiteness of the meanings of the termsscience and so on. The present metaphysics allows a clarification of the ultimate possibilities of meaning of the terms. The literal XE "Literal"  truth XE "Truth"  of present science need not be contested provided that it is seen as an infinitesimal faction of the truth. The apparent absurdity that may mark the religions is placed in context XE "Context" ; except when the absurdity is actual, use of literal form to point to higher truth results in absurdity. Of course, there is no suggestion here that absurdity standing alone is any mark of truth or value. The figurative or evocative value of the forms of expression of spirituality, myth XE "Fiction:Myth" , and religion stand beyond their actual literal or factual form but, from the metaphysics, may be given literal interpretation The metaphysics may be seen as standing above and giving context XE "Context"  and significance to the factual and figurative expression of any age. In so doing, the metaphysics may be seen as complementing such expression; contradiction should arise only in cases of literal XE "Literal"  interpretation of actual absurdity. In the direction of fact, there can be no greater complement. The figurative aspects of the expressions of the ages may be seen as intuition, perhaps only groping, of the metaphysics. If art points to truth XE "Truth" , seeing truth eliminatesoneneed for art, i.e., in this way, perception is greater than art (and religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and thought) While careful definition XE "Definition"  is taken up later, cosmology and metaphysics may be seen as the study of the universe and its natureand whether there are natures or essences. Epistemology may be seen as the study of the origin, justification, nature, and limits of human knowledge. There is a clear sense in which concern with knowledge cannot be more important than concern with the universe. However, in a world in which knowledge is regarded as problematic, epistemology XE "Knowledge:Epistemology"  may assume a greater importance than metaphysics and this has been the case in western philosophy XE "Philosophy:Western" even the possibility of metaphysics has been in questionroughly since the time of Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" . Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  provides logical construction of an ultimate metaphysics from firm empirical ground and, so, shows far more than the possibility of metaphysics It is characteristic of these developments that, even though they may appear strange on account of their unfamiliarity and even though a reading of the narrative may be difficult because of the breadth of vision and knowledge encompassed, the core developments are essentially transparent and simple. The present development of the concept of beingand of existence XE "Existence" shows it to be shallow, superficial and trivial and that it is precisely these characteristics that, along with diligent care in their consistent application and in the eradication of erroneous habits of earlier thought, enable the ultimate character of the metaphysics Thus the developments show that epistemology XE "Knowledge:Epistemology"  mayand, as will be argued in the narrative, in the goal of realization of what is desirable and possible, shouldonce again take second place to metaphysics. However, the concerns of epistemology remain important. Such concerns are raised in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and are addressed there and in subsequent topics, especially Objects XE "Object"  and Faith XE "Faith" . The concept of faith includes religious faith only as a special case and under the special circumstance that it has basis in reason or intuition but makes no incredulous or merely dogmatic appeal. If concern is with having secure knowledge then, since even in the heart of science XE "Science"  and reason and logic XE "Logic"  there is no final certainty, and sincehumanrationality has bounds, the application of knowledge must invariably involve faith even though that faith may be implicit. From another point of view, one that is perhaps revealed in animal behavior, faith-in-less-than-perfectly-secure-knowledge is an approximation to a mode-of-being-in-the-world that requires and can have no absolute certainty in the absolute presence of degrees of uncertainty In the analysis of the nature of being, of meaning, of what may be doubted and what may notof empirical knowledge, and of logic XE "Logic" , there is no other context XE "Context"  to which Foundation XE "Foundation"  may or need refer for justification. Still, various kinds of doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" e.g. doubt regarding the logic of the metaphysics and doubt about how it may apply and its consequences in this worldare raised and addressed and what doubt remains may be seen as residing, not in limits, but in the nature of being. An at element of faitheven if only implicitis and must be present in application Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of" , e.g. in undertaking transformation XE "Transformation"  and, more immediately, in locating the ultimate objects of the metaphysics in the world of experiencethat these objects can be located in experience of normal individuals may be seen to be a rather Wittgensteinian doubt. This is just as there is at least implicit faith in the application of or trust in any knowledge and which faith in explicit form is often suppressed perhaps to allow security and to promote function Even though the variety revealed in the metaphysics is ultimate, the variety is implicit in the metaphysics. This leaves open infinite vistas and possibilities of discovery and transformation XE "Transformation"  and suggests that variety is more interesting and basic than depth XE "Depth"  A consequence of the metaphysics that is developed is a theory of identity that shows that an individual must experience all identities. The limits and law-like behavior within this cosmos are termed normal. The concept of the normal is developed in a way that shows that what is often thought to be contingently impossible is merelyextremelyimprobable within a normal system and, similarly, what is thought to be contingently necessary is merely probable. The contingent XE "Contingent"  necessities and impossibilities correspond to the laws of the normal system but are not logically necessary or logically impossible. It is shown that there must be infinitely many normal systems against a background of absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , that the variety is limited only by logical necessity, and that under absolute indeterminism, all logical possibilities including the normal systems must be realized. The experience of singular identity of the individual is normal behavior that is and must be transcended when the boundariese.g., in space XE "Time and space:Space"  and timeof this normal cosmos are not the limits of the domain of consideration. The possible and necessary experience of variety of identity is infinite and these identities are experienced in singular and integral form. It is unlikely and difficult though not impossible for an individual starting from normal circumstances to design and undertake the experience of universal identity. Death is a certain gate to the infinite Part I FOUNDATION Ideas are taken up first since they are fundamental to understanding the nature of the journey XE "Journey"  and to determining possibilities ofand approaches totransformation XE "Transformation"  In Foundation XE "Foundation" , the focus is on ideas which are thought to have achieved some maturity. Transformation, which is in process, is taken up in the second part, Journey XE "Journey"  Although Foundation XE "Foundation"  is not in the form of a journey XE "Journey" , development of its ideas has been and remains a journeya part of a larger journey in transformation XE "Transformation"  of being. The ideas seek to be a contribution to thought. The first purpose of the ideas is to provide a vision of the world that will be critical and, as far as possible, ultimate. The vision will be a foundation for transformation and further developments in ideas and thought First things Journey XE "Journey"  in Being XE "Being"  is an exploration in possibility. Its means and ends are in ideas or knowledge and in transformation XE "Transformation" in transformation of individual and identity, of society XE "Society" , and, later, of the worldof being Early goals were diffuseto be adventurous, to experience mystery and retain wonder, and to make a fundamental contribution. Along the way, being emerged as a basic to a system of concepts that enabled ultimates in ideas and the possibility of ultimates in transformation XE "Transformation" as well as approaches to transformation. A diligent use of the idea of Being XE "Being"  over other concepts such as matter, mind and process enabled not only foundation and proof XE "Proof"  but also analysis of what foundation there may be Since doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  served the exploration well, since there remain questions about the foundation, and since the approaches to transformation XE "Transformation"  remain experimental, the regard for the foundation is that it may be best thought of as what foundation has been found along the way Journey XE "Journey"  refers, first, to an individual exploration that began in adventure and sense of mystery and, through study and reflection, grew into a journey of being While the journey XE "Journey"  has a personal aspect, there is, along the way, exploration and discovery in ideas and foundations, of what foundation is possible, and in being and identity The narrative seeks to be a contribution to ideas in the topicschaptersand their foundation, and to transformation XE "Transformation"  Although acceptance is determined in the course of a contribution in the stream of ideas and action, it is thought that the contribution includes an estimate of what directions in ideas are capable of ultimate foundation, that such ultimates have been sketched and proved, that knowledge has been pushed to a number of its boundaries, and that the envelope of transformation XE "Transformation"  is traced and shown In developing a new system of thought, new meaning is introduced. In the narrative, most new and altered concepts are designated by existing words that may already have a varietysometimes a profusionof general and specialized uses In order to understand the narrative it is crucial to be aware of new meaning as it is introduced Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  This is the first of two divisions on ideas. It is the intent of any theory of being to be a framework to understand all things without reference to any special discipline such as physics or psychology XE "Psychology"  or particular category such as mind or matter. A valid theory of being must contain any other theory or show it invalid as a theory of being and must be ultimate in depth XE "Depth"  of understanding and variety of being encompassed. Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  develops and elaborates such a framework. It is hoped that Theory of Being XE "Being"  is a contribution to thought With Human World, Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  denotes what foundation in ideas has arisen along the waya framework for transformation XE "Transformation" . The topics for Theory of Being XE "Being"  are Being, Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , Objects XE "Object" , Logic XE "Logic"  and meaning, Mind XE "Mind" , and Cosmology XE "Cosmology" ; the topics for Human World are Human being XE "Human Being" , Social world, War and peace XE "War and peace" , Civilization and history XE "History" , The highest ideal, and Faith XE "Faith"  Being XE "Being"  The primary objectives of this section are to lay out and motivate some basic ideas for a foundation / framework for an ultimate journey XE "Journey"  into understanding and transformation XE "Transformation"  and to explain why, from among these, the idea of being is fundamental to the development. Here, understanding includes knowledge but is more than knowledge of the worldthe universeor even the nature of knowledge itself. Understanding XE "Understanding"  includes a sense of the nature of being-in-the-world and what is important to itor, at least, a recognition that this sense is significant together with an intent to develop the sense and a habit of being concerned with it Some basic concepts of the narrative are essence, substance XE "Substance" , mind and matter, existence XE "Existence" , concept and object, experience and forms of experience, being, meaning, sense and reference The primary and foundational concepts are, perhaps, experience and being. Experience XE "Experience"  is fundamental in that it is immediatethat experience is immediate is, perhaps, an understatement for while the experience of an external object is different from the objectit is an experience, the experience of experience is an experience. Substance is not a central concept of the narrative but is important because it has been so significant in the tradition. Here, substance XE "Substance"  as foundational is rejectedit is found that substance must be rejected as a foundation for any ultimate understanding of the world and what is learned in seeing the necessity of this rejection is immense. Essence, mind, and matter have a similar negative importance to the development What now follows is an early stage of the systematic and precise development of the meaning and significance of the concepts. A more complete development occurs in the subsequent chapters of Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  in which the concepts are developed and elaborated as the basis of a coherent system of understanding. The development follows in the subsequent divisions of the narrative, in which the system is further elaborated and is applied to topics of interest the goals of the journey XE "Journey"  Concepts for a foundation. This chapter introduces ideas or concepts for a foundational framework for an ultimate journey XE "Journey"  into knowledge, understanding and transformation XE "Transformation"  The core of the framework is developed in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and its elaboration continues in the remaining chapters of the division Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  The framework did not arise at once but is the result of an iteration of insight and criticism Reasons and motives for adoption of some ideas and rejection are given. However, a fuller understanding of the concepts and reasons for retention or rejection of the concepts is developed subsequently in Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  and especially in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  Essences. In attempting to provide a foundation the question of the essence of thingsof the worldmay arise. What is essenceor, since concepts do not arise in final form at once and for all time, what may it be? Is the essence of a thing distinct from the thing? Are there essences? Substance. The history XE "History"  of the idea of substance XE "Substance" primarily in western thoughtmay be seen as an extended and varied investigation into essences There are two broad uses of the word substance XE "Substance"  in philosophy. The first is a general use in which substance is the ground, being, or essence of things. Thales of Miletus XE "Thales of Miletus"  suggested that the fundamental substance was water and the idea of stuff, of which water is a kind, is a primary instance of substance as the essence of all things. Thales, of course, did not anticipate that water would be found to be made of even more basic entities. The second use of substance arises in asking, for example, what the essence of a particular thing may be, e.g., what is the essence of being a mountain. The two meanings of substance are, of course, connected and an adequate development of the first kind may found a development of the second kind. In developing a metaphysics it is primarily the first meaning of substance that is of interest There have been a variety of reasons for an interest in substance XE "Substance"  theory and, accordingly, substance has been held to have a variety of characteristics. Reasoned lists of such characteristics have occasionally been regarded as marking the criteria that any conception of substance should satisfy. This approach is rather ad hoc and is against the spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  of the idea of substance. It is, perhaps, only by accident that such an approach would result in a coherent concept of substance and a proper substance theory. Proper substance theory is not a constituent concept of the approach What might constitute a coherent approach? If the idea of substance XE "Substance"  is to be significant in revealing the nature of the world, it will be a constituent concept of a coherent metaphysics that would stand or fall not only on the criteria of coherence but also on applicability. That is, the metaphysics would say something about the world, what it would say would be true and nothing that it said would be untrue. As will be seen world is also a concept whose meaning will be specified even if the specification is simple. The notion of substance and its nature will fall out of study and therefore the characteristics that mark substance must be variablesperhaps only implicitlyof the theory A primary motivation to metaphysicssubstance XE "Substance"  or otherwiseis to understand the world. If the terms of the metaphysics, explanatory or predictive, are more complex than the world itself, the metaphysics can hardly be regarded as understanding. Therefore, substance should be simple. From simplicity, it does not follow that substance will be known or even knowable. However, if substance were not even intelligible, e.g. through intuition andor conception, the resulting metaphysics would hardly count as understanding to an individual. Plato XE "Plato"  suggested that actual things are rough copies of forms that resided in a world whose ideal character made the forms intelligible or knowable even if not available to sense perception The thought that sense perception constitutes evidence but not knowledge may be one motive to explaining knowledge in terms of an ideal world. However, though Plato XE "Plato" s theory is elegant, it introduces two kindsthe form and the thing even if it does not go so far as to introduce a separate world of ideal forms. Understanding XE "Understanding"  would be better served if there were but one kind, one world, in terms of which the problem of knowability or intelligibility could be resolved. Therefore, another desirable characteristic of substance XE "Substance" of the terms of any satisfactory metaphysicsis that there should be one kind which, since there are actual things, must be the actual kind. Another way of saying this is that substance should be of the one world The desirable characteristics of substance XE "Substance" , then, are simplicity, intelligibility and worldliness The characteristics are not necessarily independentworldliness may enhance, though not guarantee, intelligibility and simplicity. Their formal interdependence will vary according to metaphysics and, therefore, the true interdependence will depend onwhat emerges astrue metaphysics It is not clear that any metaphysics can satisfy all three characteristicsespecially since a metaphysics that were not comprehensive over all things would hardly be a metaphysics. In the extreme of simplicity, it seems that there would be but one substance XE "Substance"  that would be uniform and unchanging. The world and its variety would come from that substance. However, the becoming itself should be simple or intelligible and, it is perhaps deterministic rather than indeterministic becoming that satisfies both simplicity and intelligibility However, that variety and change should be the deterministic result of uniformity and stasis is incoherent Although Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin" s insight into the untenable character of substance XE "Substance"  theory is intense, in neglecting to note that determinism XE "Determinism"  is the implicit twin of substance, the rejection of substance as foundational remained incomplete. Despite the explicit rejection of substance, the habit of substance thinking was retained Is there a metaphysics that can replace substance XE "Substance"  thinking and still be counted as foundationaland simple, intelligible, and fully within the one world? The metaphysics of immanence developed in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  satisfies these criteria. It rejects substance in any strict sense but is foundationalit will be seen that while foundations and rejection of substance have been traditionally regarded as incompatible, the alleged incompatibility is the result of an assumption of a deterministic universe and that a non-substance is possible and is developed as metaphysics of immanence in Metaphysics. The rejection of substance is not a hypothesis XE "Hypothesis"  but the consequence of an empirically founded metaphysics which is therefore of the world. Although demonstration waits until Metaphysics, the idea of the universe as all being is empirical and this idea among other demonstrated empirical ideas results in a metaphysics that is ultimately simple, yet ultimate in depth XE "Depth" . Further, the depth is a result of the simplicity The metaphysics of immanence retains the idea of form but not of form of being as a kind that is other than being or residing in another world; it is a metaphysics of immanent formof form as being of what is formed. The metaphysics eliminates need for andlogicalpossibility of substance XE "Substance"  of substratum and sortal kind, which are the two kinds noted earlier In the metaphysics of immanence, the foundation of the world is the world itself. Thus it is not an idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism"  or materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism"  or any kind of restricted-ism. How such a metaphysics mayand doescount as metaphysics and how it is simple awaits Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  The demonstration that the metaphysics of immanence yields intelligibility while referring toand only tothe one universe begins in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and is completed in Objects XE "Object"  In Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  it is shown that the idea of theoneuniverse as all being is more than a definition XE "Definition"  in that there can be no part of all that there is that cannot interact with any other part For further treatment of substance XE "Substance" , see  HYPERLINK "Journey%20in%20Being-New%20World-substance-temp.html" Substance, HYPERLINK "../../../Journey%20in%20Being-New%20World.html"Journey XE "Journey"  in Being XE "Being" -New World, and the discussion of substance in  HYPERLINK "http://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy XE "Philosophy"  Alternatives to substance XE "Substance" . In the foregoing, the notions of property, impression or sense data, and event as alternatives to substance or, in a loose interpretation, other kinds of substance, have not been taken up. However, as in the case of substance, it is preferable, as far as possible, to develop the metaphysics and see what falls out of it as fundamental rather than to set up a system of ad hoc even if reasonable explanationincluding criteria for explanationsin advance. In the present time, philosophy is often taken to have the characteristicperhaps among othersthat its content is conceptual rather than merely empirical and the concepts and their subject have not yet become definite as, for example, in science XE "Science" . Therefore, there may not be the luxury of criteria that are more than ad hoc and reasonable, i.e., it is not given that a philosophy or a metaphysics may be systematic and realistic. It is remarkable, therefore, that the metaphysics of immanence is systematic and realistic and that its formulation and concepts permit its own evaluation as well as an evaluation of the concepts of substancewhether abstract or in the mode of stuff, property, impression, fact and event Reflections on the nature of philosophy and metaphysics in the later chapters, Philosophy XE "Philosophy"  and metaphysics and Problems in metaphysics, show that while it is natural that metaphysics encompasses philosophy and that while there should be domains within it that are not characterized by the nature or definiteness of science XE "Science" , the thought that all metaphysics and all areas within philosophy should lack such definiteness cannot obtain Mind XE "Mind"  and matter. The foregoing discussion suggests that mind and matter cannot be substances. In Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  it is seen that in their common meanings mind and matter are too restricted and definite to serve as universal substances even though they may be substantial to this cosmological system. However, it will also be seen that if the common meanings of mind and matter are sufficiently loosened then either mind or matter may be foundational but to regard them as universal substances would also require a loosening of the concept of substance XE "Substance" . Further, although these possibilities illuminate the character of the metaphysics, they do not particularly illuminate understanding of the world and might be confusing on account of the possibility of conflation of common and extended meanings The treatment of the problem of substance XE "Substance"  is left to Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  where, as noted, it is found that there are and can be no fundamental substances in the stricter meanings of substance. If there are no substances there remains thepotentialproblem that there are no simple explanations. Of course, if this is the way things are then it is not a true problem. What, however, could function as a basis of explanation yet not be a simple substance? Existence XE "Existence" . Perhaps the most immediate and basic character of things is that they arethat they exist, i.e., that they are or have being. It is not at all clear, however, that existencebeingcan form the basis of a simple system of explanation. The possibility is shown and realized in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . Here, it will be appropriate to discuss existence and to consider some problems that have been associated with the concept of existence and its possibility as the basis of an explanatory system To say something exists is to say that it is there. To say that something is there appears to suggest that it exists in space XE "Time and space:Space" . However the use of there in there is a mountain called Everest is not spatial but is used to avoid the awkward construction is a mountain called Everest. Allowing some awkwardness of construction, to say Mt. Everest exists is to say Mt. Everest is Although it may seem that everything that exists must exist in space XE "Time and space:Space"  this is not necessarily the case. For example one apple exists in space but where does the number one exist? Does it exist? The machinery with which to answer these questions is developed in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and Objects XE "Object"  and therefore question of whether there are non-spatial objects is deferred to those chapters. However, it may be important to keep the possibility of non-spatial existence XE "Existence"  open at this point in the narrative because objects that exist in a non-spatial framework and objects that exist but in no framework at all have not been ruled out. Therefore, the grammatical form X is is important to indicate, first, existence and, second, to indicate the possibility of existence in non-spatial frameworks Local and global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  modes of description. The history XE "History"  of the universe may be viewed as having a trajectory through time or as being a trajectory over time. In the first view, the history is seen as a motion; in the second view it is seen as an object. Spatial description is implicit in the term trajectorythe trajectory is that of a spatial distribution. It is convenient to switch among the coordinate XE "Coordinate or local description"  or spatio-temporal description and the non-coordinate description in which the history of the universe is seen as an object. An immediate concern with this thought is that it is not clear that spatio-temporal description is possible for every part of the universe or that space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time are the only possible coordinates of description. From the coordinate point of view, the universe could be seen as different patches. From the non-coordinate view, the universe would be the collection of patches. In view of the indeterminacy and possible incompleteness of description in terms of space and time, the terms coordinate and non- or supra-coordinate may be replaced by the terms local and global, respectively. The global mode allows for objects or domains that are not and, perhaps, cannot be coordinated in terms ofotherobjects The primitive character of existence XE "Existence" . Therefore, existence is a very simple and immediate concept. It is associated with one of the most primitive of language XE "Language"  constructs, the verb to be one of whose forms is is In the above most primitive use, is indicates nothing other than existence XE "Existence" . Other uses are less primitive. In saying, the mountain is its atoms, it is meant that the mountain is made of its atomsthat the atoms constitute the mountain. In saying that the mountain is tall, is functions to connect the mountain to its property of tallness. The less primitive uses may be regarded as asserting existence and something else, e.g., constitution XE "Constitution"  or having a property. The uses are relatedthey may seen as having a common stem-use, that of being. In X is itself the constitutive use reduces to the stem. Bundle theory is the view, attributed to the philosopher David Hume XE "Hume, David"  but not adopted here, that an object is precisely its collection of properties; on this view, X is its properties, e.g., the mountain is its mass and its shape and its color It is clear that there is a difference between the kinds of propertymass is thought to inhere in the object but an object has color only in interaction and, if it were the intent to discuss or argue bundle theory, it would be necessary to make this distinction As noted, the use of is that indicates being or existence XE "Existence"  isperhapsits most primitive use. That existence has the meaning of the most primitive use of a most primitive linguistic construct points to the primitive character of existence, i.e., of being. The depth XE "Depth"  of the concept of existence or being lies, not in remoteness or esotericism, but in this primitive and immediate character It is not being said that the grammatical form, X is, implies existence XE "Existence"  but that it expresses the linguistic meaning of the concept of existence That existence XE "Existence"  is simple and immediate does not imply that it will be easy to explain its meaning. What does it mean that something should exist? It is the very immediacy of existence that makes it hard to explain. There areperhapsno simpler and more immediate concepts in terms of which it can be explained. Many fundamental ideas are like that. They can be knownit seemsbut not explained and therefore knowledge of them is doubted. Often, however, the reason for the difficulty with explanation or definition XE "Definition"  is that there is nothing more fundamental in terms of which to explain or define the idea. This upturns the order of things. What is less immediate is thought to be known or understood because it can be defined. What is most immediately known is thought to be difficult to know because it is hard to define. Existence is like that. It ought to be sufficient to say that Mt. Everest exists means Mt. Everest is That is not to say that there are no issues or concerns regarding the concept of existence XE "Existence"  Since everything exists it has been argued that existence XE "Existence"  is not a conceptit says nothing. This concern is addressed below under the topic concepts and objects. Another concern is that though existence may be a concept it is trivial. In a sense it is trivialeverything existsexistence makes no distinctions as, for example does redness: some things are red, others are not. Existence is profoundly trivial and profoundly shallow and it is seen in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  that this triviality is the source of its depth XE "Depth" that makes it suitable as foundational for a metaphysics of ultimate breadth and depth In a sense, existence XE "Existence"  is essence but this essence is one that is immanent, that is not separate from things In saying that something is rather than seems to be, it is suggested that it exists independently of being perceived or known. This is implicit in the idea of existence XE "Existence"  but the discussion of concept and object below will clarify the idea and make it more explicit. Immediately the question arises, does anything that is seen exist as it is seen? This is the problem of appearance and reality which is taken up in the topic concept and object below but whose treatment continues through Objects XE "Object"  Does anything exist? This question is distinct from the issue of whether anything exists as it is known. To doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  all existence XE "Existence"  as an intrinsic dimension of the psyche XE "Psyche"  may be a neurotic condition Of course there is existence XE "Existence" or else, for example, these words would be neither written nor read. Even if it is thought that the perception of the world is an illusion, the illusion exists. The fact of existence is empirical. It is not required to further check existenceit is in the meaning of existence that the existence of perception, whether real or illusion, is given However, the philosophical contemplation of the question whether anything existsand related questions, especiallywill be seen to contribute to, first, clarification of the nature of knowledge and of existence XE "Existence"  and, second, to the development of powerful tools of analysis What things exist? The question has at least two aspectsmay be seen to contain two questions. In asking whether Mt Everest exists, it is being questioned whether there is a concrete thing named Mt. Everest. An important aspect of this question is the sub-question What does it mean to say or know that Mt. Everest exists. Earlier, it was suggested that existence XE "Existence"  may not be analyzable. However, an analysis is taken up in the discussion below of concepts and objects. The discussion will show that the question whether something exists, at least for concrete things, is primarily a question of the meaning of existence. That Mt. Everest is made of various elementary particles is a clarification of the nature of material things but does not typically confirm existence. The second question concerns the existence of such non-concrete or non-material things such as number and morals. Where is the number one? Where is the value justice or the color red? It might appear that these abstract things do not exist in space XE "Time and space:Space" but if they do not exist in space, do they exist at all or are they merely ideas? The meaning of the question is not yet clearwhat could it mean that something does not exist in space but may exist as an idea? There is a vagueness behind these issues. The machinery of concept and object whose discussion begins shortly is instrumental in the analysis of abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s but real clarification awaits Objects XE "Object" . It is perhaps useful to note that in pondering the existence of abstract objects it is possible to begin a chain of reasoning that covers worlds of ideas, mental space, whether something that exists must be material It will turn out that such reflections might take the thinker into much vagueness without satisfactory resolution. Such speculation will not be indulged here because it is unnecessary. In Objects, the nature of abstract objectsand whether they reside in space, whether they have material naturewill be resolved. Worlds of ideas and mental space, could be given meaning but this will not be done as the ideas are not particularly significant or useful. What is significant is that while some elucidation of the nature of concrete object XE "Object:Concrete" s is relatively simple, the treatment of abstract objects must await the development, in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , of the metaphysics of immanence. The outcome, however, may be stated simply enoughthe distinction between concrete and abstract objects is not one of kind but is according to whether the object ismost convenientlystudied empirically or conceptually Existence XE "Existence"  versus essence. In the history XE "History"  of thought the following distinctions have been made. Existence is the mode of being in interaction, e.g., in being known. Essence or ens is the mode of being of a thing in itselfof being without qualification. To be clear about these meanings and their distinctions it would be necessary to clarify being without reference to either existence or essence. The line of thought leads to what may be experienced as freely morphing meanings that have no final stability XE "Stability" . In the absence of a picture of the world, a metaphysics, nothing more can be expected; and for any something more to be certainly groundedvalidthe metaphysics would have to be necessary. In the metaphysics of immanence, which, with its necessary and ultimate character, are developed in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , the distinction of existence and essence is seen to vanish Existence XE "Existence"  and being. Being XE "Being"  is derived from the verb to be, i.e., being is, roughly, that which is or which exists. The word roughly was used because the source of a word does not necessarily indicate the range of uses that a word may come to have. Since being is a core term of the metaphysics that will be developed in the next chapter, what it shall signify in this narrative is at least as much a result of the development as it may be of what is received from the history XE "History"  of use. Roughly, however, it may be said that the ideas of existence and being have near identity. This identity implies that what has been said about existence carries over to being. However, it will be convenient to discuss concepts, objects and experience before introduction of being The philosophical contemplation of the questions Does anything exist? What has being? is be taken up in the discussions, below, of concepts and objects, and of experience and continued throughout the narrative. The ideas of the concept and of experience are related and the term experience will be used informally in discussing concepts before its more formal consideration Concepts and objects. Among the meanings of concept are (1) something conceived in the mind, i.e., mental content and (2) an idea that may be more or less abstract and that may either refer to a single significant entity XE "Entity"  or may be generic in being generalized from particular instances While these meanings are well established, the versions above have augmentations to the traditional forms. In the first meaning mental content is a term often used in modern cognitive science XE "Cognitive science"  and its inclusion here emphasizes that concepts include what is very basicthe most primitive experience is conceptual; this is important in that if talk of concepts is to be a basis of experience and meaning, the concept should, at root, be primitive and inclusive. In the second meaning the phrase significant single entity XE "Entity"  has been added to the traditional generic idea because, e.g., the idea of universe, which is crucial to the present narrative, is not generalized from instances. It is the second meaning that includes the significant ideas from the history XE "History"  of thoughtincluding the idea of the concept The primary connotation XE "Meaning:Connotation"  of (1) may be iconic conception and that of (2) symbolic. However, these connotations are not necessary and, therefore, (2) is a case of (1) The significance of the inclusion is that the significant and the esoteric are not seen as essentially distinct from the primitive and the immediate. Significant concepts may be seen as articulated systems of primitive concepts Concept XE "Concept"  has the occasional connotation XE "Meaning:Connotation"  of intentional concept. Intentionality XE "Intentionality"  is an important modern term that characterizes the way in which a mental state has reference toan object inthe external world. In recent philosophy XE "Philosophy:Recent"  there have been a number of areas of disagreement about intentionality. One issue is whether intentionality is especially mentalwhether it can or cannot be recognized in matter or, perhaps more precisely, in material descriptions. Although these concerns are not of primary interest to this narrative, subsequent reflections, especially in Mind XE "Mind" , may provide some resolution to it. There appears to be a natural if sometimes unreflective tendency to assign various kinds of special status to mind that is a consequence of characteristics such as having subjectivity and making intentional reference that, it appears, mental states have but material ones do not. From the natural tendency as well as from the explanatory efficacy of such assignments, it does not follow that there are no alternative, valid, descriptions that do not invoke any special status to mind, e.g., that are neutral with regard to any mind / matter distinction. Particularly, whether intentionality can be understood in material terms depends on what conception of matter is used and what powers of analysis are available. If there is some future final conception of matter, i.e. one that at least implicitly contains a description of the universe, it would have to contain account, perhaps implicit, of intentionality. It is not clear, though, whether todaysquantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories" physics is anywhere close to a final physical theory or, at least, one that contains intentionality or whether the matter of such physical theories would be recognizable as matter in todays terms. Related concerns will be further discussed in Mind Since there have been proposals that mind is, effectively, a computer program or algorithm running in the brain, a question discussed in the recent literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  is whether arunningcomputer program is capable of intentionality XE "Intentionality"  or even consciousness XE "Consciousness" . Since the set of states of a computer that are implicated in the implementation of a program are a minute fraction of the physical states of the machine, the thesis that mind is a computer program appears to imply that mental states are a very superficial function of material statesthe mental states of a computer would be a superficial function its material states and the mental states of an animal would be a superficial of its brainbodystates. It seems, however, that the mental states in the brain / body of an animal are far deeper in terms of layering, far more varied with regard to mode, and far closer to detailed physical structure than are the differences in physical state of a computer that define a running algorithm. This argues that machine implementation of algorithms are minimally, if at all, mental in nature. In other words, while the positions taken in the literature appear to be that mind is / is not a computer program, the proper ascription of mental states to material states may, in addition to complexity, depend on the factors of layering, depth XE "Depth" , variation and there may also be thresholds below which it might be said there is no recognizable mind here. Simply, if computer programs are mindsmentalthey are massively primitive, disconnected from environment and one dimensional. A corollary to this conclusion is that real mindsthose that are instrumental in negotiating and being creative in a complex environmenthave deep embedding in or are high level manifestations of a complex material organization, e.g., a brain. Additionally, real or intrinsic intentionality grows out of the organism in evolution and in growth XE "Growth"  and is not imposed or built in by an external agent. These thoughts regarding embedding, here illustrative and without proof XE "Proof" , has resonances and proofs in Mind XE "Mind"  where it will be seen that the apparent polar oppositesmind is / is not a computer programs and computer programs do / do not have deep embeddingare points on a continuum In relation to concepts, the present concern with intentionality XE "Intentionality"  is that while some but not all concepts have intentionality, i.e. intrinsic reference to objects. Pre-conception is conception evoked in mind or marked on some medium from past experience, i.e., from memory XE "Memory"  and that is be intended or hoped to have future reference to an object. Preconception is also conception but is not intentional. What may be called free conception, e.g. pure expression without a present or future intentional object, is also conception. Intentional conception, preconception, and pure expression all fall under conception and their distinctions, in fact, are neither precise nor eternal, e.g. what is conceived freely may become a pre-concept and a pre-concept may become intentional The instruments of knowledge have been regarded as perception and reason (thought) and these have an interpretation in the modes of concept and their interplay. It has sometimes been thought that knowledge may be constructed from primitive perception and thought. On this account, knowledge, if at all possible, would be immensely primitive; for humananimalknowledge they require placement within a biological framework of that enables perception of and reason about the forms of the world. This framework has been called intuition A percept XE "Percept"  is a concept. While not all concepts are percepts, the recollection of past experience is, perhaps, part of all conception. When past experienceconcepts including perceptionsare laid down in memory XE "Memory" , they are not laid down as indivisible wholes, and therefore constructed concepts may contain combinations of parts of a number of experiences. Although perception is instigated by present experience, past experiencememorymay be and probably usually is involved in the production of the percept as exemplified by the forms of perception which are acquired in growth XE "Growth"  and by the perception of wholes from data that is partial (most data is partial) In both meanings, items 1 and 2 above, concepts shall here refer primarily to mental content and secondarily marks, iconic or symbolic, on other media such as paper, canvas, dirt, and computer memory XE "Memory"  or screen. While the first meaning evokes the fact of mental content or of marks on recording media, the second meaning evokes the structure of the mental content or marks The first meaning, that of mental content is the meaning emphasized here but, because of the inclusion, the discussion also applies to the second meaning. However, the discussion is not especially about significant concepts The discussion of concepts and what they refer to (objects) is important to the analysis of meaning which is significant to understanding the present narrative because many of its terms are common words that take on enhanced andor altered meaning. The discussion is also important because it contributes to the idea of meaning which has a formal place in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . However, the discussion is introduce at the present point because it is pivotal in clarifying the concept of existence XE "Existence"  and in clarifying the meaning of and, then, addressing the questions Does anything exist? and What things exist? Concepts, objects and existence XE "Existence" . What does it mean to say Mt. Everest exists? If a person is looking at the mountain and has an image of it then Mt. Everest exists means that there is something real that corresponds to and has some kind of likeness to the image or concept The individual may have seen Mt. Everest or read about it and seen pictures of it. Then the idea or concept of Mt. Everest is a recall of its image or picture. When the mountain is not in view, saying Mt. Everest exists means that there is something real that corresponds to and has some kind of likeness to the idea or concept To say that an object X exists is to say that there is a concept x and there is an object X that corresponds to and has some kind and degree of likeness to x In day to day affairs it is typically unnecessary to distinguish concept and objectand instead of using X and x, it is typical to use one sign, X to refer to both concept and object or, even one sign to refer to a symbol XE "Symbol"  whose constituents are word or name and concept and object. In fact, the conflation of word, concept and object is common and usually results in economy of thought and communication. Occasionally, the same word may refer to distinct concepts and, therefore, distinct objects and, while this may be confusing, it is an aspect of language XE "Language"  competency to normally straddle such potential confusions. However, there are confusions and paradoxes that arise when the distinction of word and object or concept and object is not made Three paradoxes of the concept of existence XE "Existence" : the paradox XE "Paradox"  of non-existence, the paradox of faithfulness XE "Faithfulness" , and the paradox of solipsism, i.e., of the logical possibility of there being no external world The paradox XE "Paradox"  of non-existence XE "Existence" . The unicorn is a mythological animal referred to in the myths of many cultures. Since there are some people who believe in unicorns it should be noted that for the purpose of this discussion unicorns are taken to be non-existent. Now consider the statement unicorns do not exist. An obvious response is precisely what is it that is asserted to not exist? In other words, since there are no unicorns, unicorn appears to have no meaning and therefore unicorns do not exist also appears to have no meaning. This is the paradox of non-existence that is frequently raised in discussions of the concept of existence. It should be noted that, regarding any hypothetical creature, X, the assertions X does not exist and X exists are equally paradoxicalequal in meaning or lack of meaning status. Even if a creature X is actual, X exists, on these terms, though not paradoxical, appears to be meaningless because X exists seems to be saying some equivalent of an object, X, that exists, exists. The paradox, which for non-existence is one of absurdity and for existence is one of triviality of meaning, is resolved quite easily in terms of the concepts of concept and object. The meaning of X exists is that there is an object X that corresponds to the concept Xthe same symbol XE "Symbol"  is used for concept and object in a convenient but occasionally misleading conflation. Similarly, the meaning of X does not exist is that there is no object X that corresponds to the concept X The paradox XE "Paradox"  of faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  of the concept. Except on the view that there is no external world the concept is not the object. A problem that then arises is whether concepts are faithful to objects. Since the concept is not the object, i.e., since there is no identity of concept and object, every attempt to verify faithfulness is and must be in terms of some further concept which is or includes some enhanced concept of the object but whose faithfulness must also be in question. It therefore appears thateven if there is faithfulnessfaithfulness of concepts to objects cannot be established or known One resolution to this question was given by Alexius Meinong XE "Meinong, Alexius"  who argued from the absence of faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  that there is no object in the world of sense experience even though objects have properties. Thus the concept was identified by Meinong as the object and labeled the concept-object XE "Object:Concept-object" . What was thought to be the object is in fact the noumenon of Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel"  which does not exist in sense experience Meinong XE "Meinong, Alexius" s explanation is appealing. In making a conflation of concept and object, the problem of faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  is eliminated. However, unless it is necessary to resort to this explanation to confront the problem of faithfulness, it cannot be the most satisfactory resolution Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" s earlier resolution to the problemdiscussed in greater detail in Objects XE "Object" suggests the line of approach adopted here. Kants solution may have been suggested by the thought that, in attempting to verify faithfulness XE "Faithfulness" , it is impossible to get outside concepts. Yet, the individual is able to negotiate and be creative in the world via concepts and, therefore, there must be some intrinsic adaptation of cognition XE "Cognition" and, perhaps, of emotion XE "Emotion"  and of any other function of psyche XE "Psyche" to the world. From the vast and precise success of the mechanics and the geometry of his day, Kant assumed that Euclidean Geometry and Newtonian Mechanics XE "Theories of physics:Newtonian mechanics"  had encapsulated the forms of space XE "Time and space:Space" , time and motion or causation XE "Causation" . Further, since the individual perceives the world in these terms, Kant thought that the intrinsic adaptation of perception is a precise intuition of the forms of space, time and motion or causation. Then, the sciences of geometry and mechanics were developed in logical terms, which are also a capability, from the intuition It is known, today, that the mechanics and geometry of the world are only approximated by the science XE "Science"  of Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" s time and, therefore, the intuition is only approximate. However, the interpretation of this approximate character as a limit can be turned around. First, it may be recognized, from the non-identity of concept and object, that no absolute faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  can be guaranteed. However, even though an absolute faithfulness of knowledge has been an ideal of human knowledge perhaps since a time before history XE "History" , it is neither to be expected nor in any way necessary. Therefore, especially on account of the gap between concept and object, faithfulness seems to be a near impossible ideal and what is impossible cannot be an ideal. In observing that although the ideal appears to be impossible, it makes for the possibility that knowledge may have advance and, depending on perspective XE "Perspective" , this reflect a nicer world than one in which knowledge is already ideal Thus while Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel"  overstated the abilities of cognition XE "Cognition" , the actual lesser ability may be seen as positiveit is an embedding in the world rather than an absolute capability from a vantage point that is experienced as external to the world Use of terms lesser and greater ability have a value driven component that has irrelevance to the individual / society XE "Society" -in-the-world Although there may be no absolute faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  to the object, there is a practical and sufficient faithfulness. In saying this, it may be noted that, even in practical terms, there is an arbitrariness to the question what is the object? It is typical to think of two mountains as two objects. However, why can the two mountains not be thought of as a single object? This freedom exists and depending on circumstances, many objects can be regarded, even seen, as one or one as many; this freedom is itself a form of practical and useful faithfulness that may, according to perspective XE "Perspective" , be seen as lack of faithfulness or a kind of adaptable faithfulness. Perhaps one half of one mountain and one half of the other can be seen as a single object. The possibility exists but appears to lack utility. There is in fact a theoretical arbitrariness to the identity of the object that, however, is resolved by adaptability in the actual situation. If flying between two close near vertical walls, it may be useful to see them as one canyon. In entering a very unfamiliar situation it may be required to negotiate the new environment, to experiment XE "Experiment"  with it, before the arbitrary combinations resolve into definiteness of objectsthe process of resolution is adaptation of cognition XE "Cognition"  in process and the theoretical arbitrariness of objects may be seen as a feature of the world which has no intrinsic value but which is deployed to cognitive advantage It remains true, though, that there is, in general, a necessary and absolute gap between concept and object. Are there any objects that exist as conceived? It will be shown below that there are necessaryand significantobjects whose being conforms to their conception. The practical faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  of conceptsof experienceand the necessary faithfulness of concepts of the necessary objects provide reasons for not adopting Meinong XE "Meinong, Alexius" s concept-object XE "Object:Concept-object"  to the problem of faithfulness and for not limiting metaphysics, as did Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel"  and Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" , to a metaphysic of experience Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" s noumenon can be conceived but not, according to Kant, experienced and is therefore, as far as is known, lacking in differentiationsome thinkers have taken this to imply that the noumenon itself is lacking in differentiation. In Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , it will be possible to go beyond this degree of knowledge of the noumenon. The essential point to this possibility is that in experiencing there is experience of the noumenon. This claim appears to be paradoxical for what has been said above amounts to experience being phenomenal and not noumenal. The error in the paradox XE "Paradox"  is that while it holds for detail, it does not hold for what is general, i.e., what is necessary in experience, i.e., in experiencing a world, the phenomenon and noumenon are identical I.e., in this way, experience transcends the concept The solipsists paradox XE "Paradox" . Solipsism is the position that the entire world is the mental space XE "Time and space:Space"  of the individualthat this position is logically possible. That is, if the reader were a solipsist he or she would think, there are no things as such, there are no other minds, there is just my experience. (If the solipsists position were true, it is not clear how or where he or she would arrive at the concept mind, other mind, my mind, me) To be consistent, that reader would not think I have a body but there is an experience of a body that is an experience labeled this body; he or she would not think there are others who have bodies and minds but other and others' minds and bodies are but points in experienceit would be invalid to think points in my experience as factual the phrase would refer, merely, to certain regions of experience. In fact the solipsist would think what is labeled the world is the set of points in experience and what is labeled the external world is a subset of points in experience. I.e. the solipsist is committed to the non-existence XE "Existence"  of an external world. To be solipsist in fact, would be a psychopathological condition; however, to entertain solipsism is useful as a challenge to realism as belief in a world independent of mind and, in addressing this challenge, to be an occasion to sharpen the concept of realism and commitment XE "Commitment"  to it as well as occasion to develop powers and tools of analysis. Solipsism is taken up in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  where it is seen that solipsism may be consistent with the properties of very simple worlds, immensely improbable in this worldbut logically impossible only if certain properties of this world are taken as given On meaning. The comments on meaning in this chapter are preliminary. However, a primary concern here is that an understanding of meaning is important to understanding of the way in which words and concepts are used in the narrative. As an example, the importance of paying attention to meaning was evident above in discussing existence XE "Existence"  Another objective of the discussion is to set up the later formal treatment of meaning in Logic XE "Logic"  and meaningand, therefore, the discussion is more complete than it would need to be in order to guide a reader through the narrative. In the later treatment, meaning is given a place in the metaphysics Meaning XE "Meaning"  itself has a number of meanings as in I have been meaning to tell you how much I value your friendship, The meaning of a human life XE "Life"  is a function of human freedoms, especially the freedoms of choice XE "Choice" , action, and symbolic thought, and Specifying the meaning of the word existence XE "Existence"  is difficult even though we feel we know intuitively what it is for something to exist. The meaning of meaning is its use in the last of these examples, i.e., word or, more generally, linguistic meaning. In this discussion meaning centers around linguistic meaning but, as will be seen later, in order to specify linguistic meaning it will be necessary but not sufficient to focus on language XE "Language"  A problem encountered in setting up a system of thought is that elements of the system are interdependent and it may be necessary to raise the level of understanding of each element iteratively. This particular concern would not be resolved by a formal axiomatic development for as long as development is ongoing, an axiomatic expression might require iterative modification It may be natural to place some preliminary observations on meaning immediately after discussing concepts and objects for the relations between concepts and objects is one of meaning. However, what is said immediately below on meaning learns from the development of the system of ideas of the narrative and the reader will find confirmation of the comments on meaning in the subsequent developments. However, although these comments may depend, in part, on the subsequent developments for their inspiration XE "Inspiration" , the validity of the comments stands independently The placement of the discussion of concepts and objects is necessary in order to avoid conflict that may otherwise arise in the use of the important terms, especially experience, existence XE "Existence" , being, universe and so on. One significance of this point is that it is essential to be aware of the meanings of terms as used here in order to understand the development and appreciate its power XE "Power"  and significance Sense XE "Meaning:Sense"  and reference in meaning. When may it be said that a concept is understood? Even though a concept refers to an objecta class of objects may be regarded as a complex object and so the singular term object is appropriateit has sense. Roughly, sense is what the concept connotes to the conceiver. Although the sense may seem to be different from the object, perhaps sense is nothing other than the intuition that is built up in using the concept in formal and informal contexts. E.g., in reflecting what sense the sense of a particular concept may be the individual may have a variety of mental pictures that contribute to the sense. In Logic XE "Logic"  and meaning, sense will come to mean potential or possible reference; however, at present the idea of sense is left with the foregoing intuitive specification. The meaning of a concept is often regarded as sense as just described. However, in the present specification, sense is open ended and clearly not definite. The meaning of the meaning of a concept would become definite if the class of objects to which it refers were specified. Thus it was Frege XE "Frege, Gottlob" s thought that meaning should be as a combination of sense and reference This specification of meaning may appear to be an awkward combination of different kinds. However, as noted, the kinds are not different if sense means potential or possible reference and, so, sense and reference need not be understood as different kinds Some observations on meaning now follow In any context XE "Context"  meaning resides in the system of concepts and in their possibilities of combination, i.e., grammar For example, since a context XE "Context"  in which there are only actions or processes is imaginable, the grammar of verbs must surely depend on the language XE "Language"  in which it occurs In a language XE "Language"  in which there are things and processes, the possibilities of meaning must depend on the kinds of relation that thing and process are allowed Although it is a mistake to think that system meaning implies all rules of grammarsince the same content has different forms in different languagesthere must, for stability XE "Stability"  and faithfulness XE "Faithfulness" , be some invariants of grammatical form The residence of meaning in a system of concepts is perhaps most evident in axiomatic systems in logic XE "Logic"  and mathematics XE "Mathematics"  and in scientific theories Is the meaning of the term Mt. Everest dependent on the environment? Ask, is the peak of Mt. Everest white? If the peak appears pink at sunset, is it a fact or a convention that the peak should be regarded as whiteif it is so regarded. And, is its color part of the concept of Mt. Everest? Although the example is trivial, cosmology suggests that the properties of local objects may depend on the structure and extent of the cosmological system but, as long the effect is relatively constant, the local objects will appear to be constant in their fundamental physical properties Therefore, individual concepts are not completely understood in isolation However, metaphorically, meaning may be focused in the concepts while it also resides in the system That meaning is focused in the concepts is effective and may be a result of selection of perceivers and perception within a selected environment. There may also be selection or experimentation in the formation of free concepts There is no implication that in having a system of meaning, perfection has been achieved or has significance There are different contexts of meaning. The same word in different contexts has a different meaning. It might be more accurate to say that the different contextual meanings of the same word have no basis of comparison If the contexts overlap, it may be possible to formulate a basis of comparison of meanings in the different contexts As a context XE "Context"  changes or moves, meaning shifts. The change in context may be a lateral XE "Lateral analysis of the meanings of concepts"  drift, or, perhaps, a broadening of context As contexts change, old terms take on new though perhaps similar meaning. New terms with previously unrecognized meaning may be introduced as a result of introduction of new objects of reference andor experiment XE "Experiment"  with sense There is a variety of ways in which contexts change. A community that is subject to new circumstances beyond or in their control may face conditions that require new concepts or the shift of old ones. As Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig"  pointed out, language XE "Language"  has a multiplicity of contextual uses that he referred to as language games. Wittgenstein was especially interested in non-propositional uses of language. This emphasis may have mislead some recent thinkers into believing that the propositional use is altogether unstable; this contrasts with the present discussion in which this use is seen as having stabilities-within-a-context XE "Context" -of-flux. Wittgensteins interest in non-propositional use may also have lead some thinkers into marginalizing the proposition and the fact; however, this marginalization is not entailed by an emphasis on the other usesit is, of course, not being asserted that there are no issues with the idea of the proposition or its standard forms and this concern receives some attention in later discussions of language in this narrative In acquiring new domains of knowledge, context XE "Context"  is significantly extended. Contexts change from individual to individual and from one occasion or time in the life XE "Life"  of an individual to another. Naturally, these differing contexts, except in the case of fracture or extreme shift, must have an effective similarity that permits stable communication and stable identity. However, the variability, which may be at least partially driven by the individual, may be a source of adaptation to new contexts whether imposed or created It may be thought in the extension it is only the range of known reference of the concept that changes. However, potential reference also changesin Objects XE "Object"  and in Logic XE "Logic"  and meaning it is seen that sense may be identified with potential reference. It could be argued that, once a concept is established, its potential reference, especially against the background of any ultimate metaphysics, is fixed. However, a distinction may be made between potential reference that is merely possible and having a grasp of the possibilities and range of possibilities of reference Net meaning, i.e., system meaning shifts Thus meaning has a fluid aspect but must also have stability XE "Stability"  in order to be usable It appears that there are times of stability XE "Stability"  in meaning and times of rapid change whether the context XE "Context"  is limited or general. A study of the occasions and factors of change may be interesting butexcept for suggestions that may be implicit in the discussionwill not be taken up here Generally, etymology, provides no more than clues to meaning. This is true, perhaps, even of dictionaries. Though dictionaries are useful and etymology may be enlightening, they may be misleading if employed as definitive The word progress may refer to cases in which a new context XE "Context"  includes an old one In progress, the context XE "Context"  of reference grows Even in its valid context XE "Context" , the old system is not the same as the new. However, in that context, the two systems may have equivalence. By taking into account the characteristics of the old context, the new may reduce to the old in the old context Scientific theories are a prime example of such progress. The domain of application of relativistic mechanics is broader than that of classical mechanics and the classical theory is the low velocity limit of the relativistic theory. Although the meaning of the basic terms (concepts) of the mechanics are not identical in the classical and relativistic theories, the reduction provides some basis of comparison. This stands against Thomas Kuhn XE "Kuhn, Thomas" s thought that successive theories of science XE "Science"  are incommensurablewhat may be the case is that the new theories have a sense of incomprehensibility to some scientists who were educated under the older paradigm XE "Paradigm"  From the reduction of a new scientific theory to an older one, it does not follow that such reduction is possible for all expansions of context XE "Context"  and even if possible, the reduction in one case may not show how the reduction is to be accomplished in another If one context XE "Context"  includes another, the meaning of the contained system may be derived from the containing system. However, if there is no containing system, there is no other system in terms of which meaning may be derived. That is, without a containing system, meaning cannot be specified lexically In absence of a containing system, meaning is implicit in use which must mean application or deployment Application anchors meaning and is its source of stability XE "Stability"  However, even though there is no containing system for the given context XE "Context" , the context may be capable of growth XE "Growth"  and therefore, stability XE "Stability"  of meaning does not imply finality of meaning Since a metaphysics intends to be a system that has no present containing system, these thoughts definitely apply to metaphysics Even in the common arena of meaning, there is change. This may be seen most clearly in small communities that must continually adapt to changing contexts and in the origin of pidgin dialects Given an isolated community, there is no, larger, containing or inclusive community. The agents of linguistic change are the members of the community and their experience In the modern world, all individuals have the potential to participate in change, even though change may be concentrated in a few individuals and in institutions Explicit rules of language XE "Language" e.g. grammarmust have come after language even though they may be implicitly present at the beginning of language innon-uniquelyexpressing necessities of meaning. Formal rules may be necessary to stabilize meaning in large societies where context XE "Context"  is isolated from necessity and in order to standardize communication. However, the value of standardization may be an illusion. Further, standardization may be an impediment to growth XE "Growth"  and change, and may encourage stagnation and degeneration and a mechanical view of meaning The stability XE "Stability"  of meaning-as-reference is confused by meaning-as-power XE "Power" , i.e., by appropriation of meaning to political ends that include influence XE "Influence"  by one individual or group over another Experience XE "Experience" . It was earlier seen that the concept of substance XE "Substance"  cannot be the basis of a foundation of a framework for an ultimate understanding of things and the idea of existence XE "Existence"  was suggested as an alternative. Existence is recommended, not only by its inclusion of what is immediate but also by its lack of distinction of the immediate and the remote, the esoteric and the mundanei.e., by its shallow or trivial character. An appeal to existence is, in effect, an explanation of things in terms of the things themselvesi.e., of the universe in terms of itself. It is trivially clear that this explanation will be successfulevery thing is itself. It seems equally clear that this explanation should be uninformative; however, it has been noted that existence can form the basis of a metaphysics of ultimate depth XE "Depth"  and breadth. While there are some thoughts toward the development of the metaphysics in this chapter, especially in what follows, the systematic development is deferred to Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . The questions Does anything exist? and What things exist? were pointed out as significant but have not yet been fully addressed. It was suggested that perception of things is a form of existence XE "Existence"  even if the thing perceived is a hallucination or there is an illusion involved in the perception for the percept XE "Percept"  itself exists regardless whether it is real or illusory or hallucinatory The concept of experience will be used to strengthen and elaborate the earlier argument. In their primitive meanings, experience and concept are near identical. However, the idea of concept is used to suggest that there may be an object that corresponds to the concept but experience focuses on the concept itself, on what is sometimes called the subjective side of knowing The discussion will first focus on experience itselfon what it is. Then, even though there appears to be no doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  that there is experience, that doubt will be raisedfor two reasons. The primary reason is that expressing and resolving doubt takes the argument further from the level of the ad hoc and into reason and so improves confidence in the argument itself and reinforces demonstrative toolsthe analysis of meaning and what is given and the use of proof XE "Proof" . The analysis of meaning and of what is given is especially important for, while it is often neglected or assumed without question, focus on it will, in the present discussion, show clearly what may be regarded as given and will resolve foundation in showing XE "Proof:Showing"  it is not limited to the alternatives of substance XE "Substance"  that is not capable of further analysis and infinite regress, i.e., in going toward showing a foundation without substance but that terminates without regress. The second reason to raise the doubt regarding the existence XE "Existence"  of experienceof consciousness XE "Consciousness" is that the doubt has been raised in the recent literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  on the philosophy of mind and that resolution of the doubt will need to analyze the reasons for the doubt and, in this discussion, resolve those reasons and show the doubt regarding experience to based in confusion of the nature of matteri.e. that what is not seen or not explicit in theory must be absent The discussion will show that there is experience, i.e., that something does indeed exist. Then, experience will be used to address the question What things exist? At this point, the existence XE "Existence"  of experience itself will have been established but, except for experience itself, the existence of the seeming objects of experience will not have been established. The idea of the forms of experience will be used to investigate what exists. It will be seen to be possible to properly class the forms as two kindsthe necessary forms of experience and the contingent XE "Contingent"  forms. It will be shown in the discussion that the necessary forms do and must correspond faithfully to objects that may be labeled necessary objects. One of these forms is experience itself; some others are the universeall that existsand the void or absence of existence. The study of the necessary forms and their consequences is developed at length in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . The contingent forms concern the external worldthe world that exists independently of its being experienced but that exists, roughly, as experiencedand its variety of things or objects. In Metaphysics it is shown that although the contingent forms of experience do not invariably have corresponding intentional objects, there must, provided that no inconsistency is entailed, be corresponding objects somewhere in the universe. The existence of objects that correspond to the contingent forms is taken up in Objects XE "Object"  where it is argued that it is normali.e., roughly speaking, immensely probablefor the contingent forms to be practically faithful to objects The external world is not experience but includes it, e.g. in regarding ones own mind as an object or in other mindsthe question of other minds and their existence XE "Existence"  as instrumental in removing doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  and in sharpening demonstrative tools is introduced above and discussed further in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and Objects XE "Object" . It was just said that the external world is not experience. However, in metaphysical idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism" , perhaps the significant alternative to materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism"  in the history XE "History"  of thought, mind is thought to be a more fundamental feature of the universe than is mattere.g. everything is mind and that matter is one of its forms. Idealism and its denial, e.g. that the world is not experience, are not meaningful unless the nature of matter and mind are carefully specified. There is a common concept of matter as in modern physical science XE "Science"  and a common concept of mind as in the seat of mental content or experience. In the common concepts, it is frequently thought that it is difficult to see how mind could be a form of matter because mind is so seemingly immaterial. However, it is not unreasonable to think that if sufficient powers of calculation were available that mind could fit into a quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  mechanical framework and that the subjective or apparently immaterial aspect of mind is an implicit aspect that frameworksubjectivity is not excluded in the material description but its absence is often taken as exclusion XE "Exclusion" . If mind cannot fit into the present quantum theoretical framework, there must be some extended frameworkit does not follow that normal human powers are sufficient to its discoverythat does; this follows from the necessity of the existence of experience / mind that is addressed in this chapter. In Mind XE "Mind"  it will be seen that, although in its common concept, experience is only a part of being, there is and must be an extended concept of experience or mind that extends to the root of being, that includes all being including matter and its forms. In the dual extension to the root of both mind and matter the two concepts arewill beseen as identical, the extension of meanings results in neither true idealismor pan-psychismnor true materialism. Instead, what is revealed is that there is no more fundamental character of things than the things themselves which, as noted earlier, will be seen, perhaps against expectation and common sense, to be the basis of an ultimate metaphysics What is experience? A prototype of experience is the experience of an object. In seeing a rose one has experience of its shape, its color, its fragranceand these constitute the experience of the rose. Experience XE "Experience"  is the qualitative, or subjective or feeling XE "Feeling"  side of things. It should be noted, though, that, here, quality and quantity or quality and definite form or mathematical form are not in the least exclusiveexclusion XE "Exclusion"  arises from the use of a distinct if related meaning of quality. Experience is equally present in emotion XE "Emotion" , e.g. the feeling of happiness, in the perception of things both smalla roseand grand, e.g. a sunset over the ocean, and in the sense of a presence, e.g., awe or wonder at the mystery and power XE "Power"  of the universe. In the previous sentence feeling is used in a common meaning; later, feeling will be used in a more inclusive sense in which perception also involves feeling, i.e., feeling will be used as nearly identical in sense to the present use of experiencethe distinction will be that feeling will connote elementary experience; therefore, experience willmaybe thought of as integrated feeling. Experience is immediate but, perhaps, that is an understatement for experience is not what is most immediately known, it is the form and mode of knowing As noted earlier, experience and concept have near identity except that the concept is typically associated intentionally with an object but, in its meaning or sense, experience has no intended association with an object. Experience XE "Experience"  is not something that is other than the conceptit is part / mode of concept. However, just as a concept may have intentional correspondence to an object, may lack actual correspondence but may have potential correspondence to an object, may have no intentional correspondence actual or potential, may be a perception, a recall, a reconstruction from recalliconic as in imagery or symbolic as in thought or compound as in symbolic-imagistic thoughtexperience may also be all these things It is possible to talk of concepts from an objective point of view as, e.g. a structure in the bodybrainof an organism and, experience seems to not lend itself to this kind of description and there is thus an apparent gulf between experience and this way of seeing concepts; however, this apparent distinction will be dissolved in the subsequent narrative, especially in Mind XE "Mind"  In attempting to explain what experience is the terms employed are terms of experienceexperience itself, perception, feeling XE "Feeling" , the subjective side This is because experience is so fundamental that there is no more fundamental thing in terms of which to define it; and, experience does not seem to be like the objects of the external world and, so, it seemingly cannot be defined in terms of external objects. Some things can be defined in terms of experiencegiven experience, it may be possible to define kinds of experience such as the experience of sadness, of warmth, of color and so on. As a result, in the paradigm XE "Paradigm"  of definition XE "Definition"  in linguistic terms, sadness, warmth, color and so on may seem to be clearer in their nature than experience itself. Although we know what experience is it is difficult to define. The case is similar for many fundamental conceptsthe fundamental concept is difficult to define because there is nothing other or more fundamental in terms of which to define it and so, while the more advanced concepts may be defined the fundamental concepts are difficult to define. When thinking analytically, then, there may be vagueness attached to what is fundamental. In fact, however, to think this way is to be deceived by the clarity of analytic thought: whatever is vague about the fundamental concept is also vague about the derived concepts but, because they may be defined analytically, it may be thought that they are clearly understood. The habit of analytic thought upturns the order of clarity and makes the perception of the particular seem clearer than the form of perception which is so immediate that it escapes notice. This is perhaps most extreme for experience for which there are alternative terms, feeling and so on, but no terms that are more fundamental and therefore it is not merely difficult to define experience analytically, it is perhaps, as a result of its most immediate character, impossible to define it analyticallyand while this may result, under the analytic paradigm, in a feeling of vagueness about its character and questions about its existence XE "Existence" , this feeling is misplaced: among all things experience is most immediate, most clear, most real It may be thought that existence XE "Existence"  of things is being made to depend on being experienced. That, however, is not the case. Experience XE "Experience"  is identified as a fundamental mode of existence, though not the only mode. For a sentient being, experience is the way of knowing existence but not as the condition of existence of objects; and experience will be the basis of demonstration of the existence of necessary and contingent XE "Contingent"  objectsbelow in discussing the forms of experiencebut not the condition of their existence. The argument has concerned, not the dependence of existence on being experienced, but the real XE "Real, the" ity of experience itself In saying that experience is not the whole of existence XE "Existence" , i.e., that there is also the object of experiencethe external world, it is not being said that the external world is devoid of experience for, other individuals have experience and, when the individual experiences his or her own experience of the external world, the experience itself becomes or is part of the external world. It is also not being said that there is no extended concept of experience and, perhaps, no extended understanding of the world as object, in which experience and object become identical, or, at least, different modes of description of the universe. The reality of experience is emphasized by the fact that while the experience or concept of an object is in a different category than the object, experience and experience of experience are in the same category. Or, since experience of experience is experience but is also experience of an object, when experience is the object, experience and object are not in different categories Thus it is in the meaning of experience and existence XE "Existence"  that experience existsthe meanings of experience and existence are intertwined though, of course, they are not identical for it is not being suggested that experience is the only thing that exists. (If experience were all, the meanings of experience and existence would be intertwined; which shows that while there is some similarity to their senses, the reference of experience lies within the range of reference of existence.). In a sense, the fact of experience demonstrates its existencei.e., that something exists. The demonstration is, of course, not a proof XE "Proof"  from premise to conclusion but in the analysis of what is most immediategivenand of meaning, i.e., there is an analytic component to the demonstration that, however, lies in the analysis of a linguistic meaning and not in the construction of one The content of the previous paragraph may be stated formally. It was seen that the meaning of X exists where X is a concept is that there is an object X to which the concept is faithful. So far only the practical faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  of concepts to objects has been established and this faithfulness obtains when the concepts have a certain usefulness. However, experience is conceptual and thus the concept of experience is of the same kind as experience and thus in conceiving experience there is no absolute gap between concept and object as there is between concept and external object Thus, although, on account of its apparently immaterial nature, and on account of a natural tendency to doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  the subjective, it may be natural to doubt that there is experience, this doubt is now revealed as unreasonable. Experience XE "Experience"  is the fundamental case of definite existence XE "Existence"  and this fact is not capable of further analysis although, of course, it is capable of illumination That is, experience is itself, the first necessary concept and the first necessary object Still, for the reasons stated earlier, the existence XE "Existence"  of experience will be subject to doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  Since demonstration of the existence XE "Existence"  of experience has been given, to address doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  all that is necessary is to allay itthis will be accomplished by identifying doubts and refuting them A first reason for doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  is, as stated above, the apparently immaterial nature of experience, of feeling XE "Feeling" . The question may arise Where does experience exist? This question may be elaborated The brain occupies certain states and undergoes certain processes in having a concept but where is the experience itself? Materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism"  itself has not been established and, as will be shown, it cannot be establishedexcept erroneouslyand, therefore, the immaterial nature of experience, whether apparent or real, is not an argument against the existence XE "Existence"  of experience; this point is elaborated in Mind XE "Mind" . The resolution of any paradox XE "Paradox"  regarding objects that do not have location or clear location is left to Objects XE "Object" , and the question of the location of experience itself is left to Mind There is, therefore, no principled objection to the existence XE "Existence"  of experience from the apparently immaterial character of experience A second set of reasons to doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  the existence XE "Existence"  of experience comes from scientific materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism" . (In talking of scientific materialism, it is not asserted that a commitment XE "Commitment"  to science XE "Science"  is a commitment to materialism even though the majority of scientists are, perhaps, materialists. In fact, the commitment of persons is not a logical factor at all but the point is mentioned here because it is often treated as though it is) From the fact that certain features of mind have no demonstrated explanation in terms of modern theoretical physics it is often assumed that they cannot fit into a materialist framework and therefore they do not exist or, perhaps, even if they exist, have little significance in the working of the world. Such features include intentionality XE "Intentionality" , the causal efficacy of mind, and experiencemind itself. This objection has been addressed above and is treated and defused in greater depth XE "Depth"  and detail in Mind XE "Mind" . I.e., the objection from scientific materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism"  do not hold. A part of the argument will be that experience is not other than brain / body process and there is therefore no logical argument from materialism to non-existence XE "Existence"  or insignificance of the features of mind It appears to be the case that human beings vary significantly in the richness and variety of their inner lives. Perhaps it is not that some persons have a necessary poverty of experience but that they attach less significance to it. It is not clear how the truth XE "Truth"  of the claim might be demonstrated but it has been suggested as an explanation of the quickness with which some thinkers are persuaded by the materialist argument to deny experience. There is an argument from power XE "Power"  to the denial of experience and it is not clear how the power motive might be distinguished from poverty of experience. Perhaps power is a substitute for poverty of experiencean aspect of the introvert / extravert continuum. Perhaps the power motive may overcome richness of experience. The point being made in the present paragraph is not a logical one but is an attempt to explain the puzzling aspects of the denials by some of something that seems to others to be central to human beingand, it may be noted, those who deny experience and consciousness XE "Consciousness"  have explanations as to why others might entertain such beliefs. The logical point to this paragraph, then, is that psychological analysis of belief does notgenerallyprove or disprove the belief and has no place in logical argument even though it may be used as an instrument of persuasion Having dealt with objections to the existence XE "Existence"  of experience, it no longer remains to demonstrate existence for demonstration has already been given. However, there may be ways to further secure and illuminate the demonstration. The fundamental principle of metaphysics from Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , shows the necessity of experience since it is possible and the concept of the normal from the same chapter shows that it is immensely likely that human and other animals have experience. As proof XE "Proof" , this approach is less secure that the demonstration given above; however, it clearly and definitely defuses any disproof of experience on materialist / scientific grounds; further, it may be useful as a source for further reflection / demonstration The forms of experience. Concepts include percepts whether real of illusory, and recollected images whether whole or part or reconstructed, whether iconic or symbolic, i.e. imagery and thought, and whether real, potential or delusional. Concepts may be simple as in a sensation in a single sensory mode, complex as in percepts and thought, and compound as in hypotheses and theories and, even, entire narratives, even the entire tradition of thought. Thus it is typicalillusions and delusions being exceptionalthat concepts correspond intentionally to an object whether actual or potential. Experience XE "Experience"  and concept are identical except, first, that experience emphasizes the concept without particular reference to an object and, second, that in talking of experience the subjective aspect is emphasized where as in talking of the concept there is no preference for the subjective or first person aspect or the objective or third person point of view. The forms of experience are the contents of experience or concepts regarded in their experiential aspect. That is, in talking of the forms of experience reference is being made to mental content, to concepts, but without regard to whether the concepts in question have any kind of reference to something elseto an object. That is, the forms of experience are regarded in themselves and as of interest in themselves The significance of the forms of experience. The forms of experience may therefore be regarded as a form of play, a theatre, in which the constraint XE "Constraint"  of reality, if present at all, is not in the foreground. The variety of the forms of experience is at least as rich as the sum of human knowledge and imagination. The first significance of the forms of experience is that they are, as play, a source of creation. I.e., the forms of experience are pre-critical. However, if all forms of mental content are to be included, criticism itself is included but, primarily, as play. Figuratively, criticism is permitted among the forms of experience but it does not typically wear a stern faceto yield to a temptation to say that criticism is never stern when regarded as a form of experience would, perhaps, be rather stern. This process of equivocation could be unending but judgment intervenes at some point and finds that other avenues of play with the forms of experience may be more productive. Thus, criticism is never altogether absent and this raises an interesting question whether it is possible to be altogether uncritical The present idea of the forms of experience is similar to Husserls insight that the study of foundations must or should begin with an analysis of experience. At present, the forms of experience are not, however, sufficiently developed to be regarded as a ground for metaphysics but may, instead, be regarded as a source. It is interesting that the idea of the forms of experience occurred independently of any recollection of Husserls thought and this suggests that there is convergence in realistic thought that stems from the real XE "Real, the"  itself, from intuition of the real and from immersion in traditional thought The present narrative has many points of contact with the traditionsome of whose representatives are Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" , Schopenhauer XE "Schopenhauer, Arthur" , Husserl, Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" , and Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin" that attempts to straddle the empiricism / rationalism dichotomy. A number of these points of contact may be found in the concept and variety of the forms of experience Classification: the variety of the forms of experience. The forms of experience may be classed, at outset, as necessary versus contingent XE "Contingent"  versus impossible. The following contains a preliminary discussion of necessary and contingent forms of experience; the impossible forms are discussed in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and in Objects XE "Object"  which continue the discussion of necessary and contingent forms. Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  emphasizes necessary formsgeneral cosmology XE "Cosmology:General" as well as contingent formslocal or physical cosmology and Human World emphasizes the interaction of the necessary / universal forms with the contingent forms of the human world The necessary forms of experience are those whose intentional correspondence to an object follows from the form itself. I.e. the correspondence to an object is determined by logic XE "Logic"  where logic is understood to include necessary analysis of meaning. The objects to which the necessary forms of experience correspond necessarily exist and are therefore called necessary objects. Since the necessary form of experiencenecessarilycorresponds to a necessary object, it suffices to use the word necessary to refer to both form and object. As has been seen it is in the meanings of experience and existence XE "Existence"  that there is experience and experience is necessary; similarly, existence is necessary. It is not being said that there must be existence (beingsee the discussion of being below) but the necessity of existence (being)i.e., there cannot be eternities of nothingwill be demonstrated in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . The other primary necessary forms include the following. From existence (being) it follows that there is the universe, i.e., all existence (all being;) from the experience of difference and change it follows that there are difference and change which must be necessary; the necessity of extension / duration follows from the necessity of difference / change; from difference, it follows that domains are necessary and from domains, it follows that domains necessarily have complements, i.e. all that is not in the domain The necessity of the void or absence of existence XE "Existence"  (being) may now be demonstrated. (i) Since the universe is all being it must contain all objectsall Form XE "Form" , Pattern XE "Pattern"  and Law which, from the concept of the universe, cannot lie outside it. (ii) Define the void as the complement of the universe. (iii) If the void exists it contains no Object XE "Object" no Form, Pattern or Law. (iv) The universe is a domain and therefore it has a complement which must exist. Since, from item ii, the complement of the universe is the void, the void exists. Combining this with item iii, it follows that The Void XE "Void"  Exists and Contains no Objectno Form, Pattern or Law It will be seen in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  that there is a necessary character to the contingent XE "Contingent"  forms in that even though they may not reside in any particular worlddomain of the universethey must, of logical necessity, reside somewhere and when in the universe The contingent XE "Contingent"  forms of experience. (A) There is experience of I or this center of experience. However, it does not follow from the experience of I that there is an I. More generally, it does not follow from the existence XE "Existence"  of an external world that there is an external world. Doubting the existence of antheexternal world or an I is not a practical doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  but serves to clarify the concept of the external world, the nature of domains in which there must (practically) / need not be an external world, and to develop tools of demonstration and analysis. In Objects XE "Object" , identitywill be developed as an object in a way that reveals the merging of individual identity in higher / universal identity without relinquishing individual identity (B) Concepts of particular entities whether concrete entities or things such as rocks or abstract such as number and other mathematical objects. The nature of the concrete object XE "Object:Concrete"  has been introduce above and it is further clarified in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and in Objects XE "Object" . Concrete objects include not only things but also relative intangibles such as air, parts and collections-as-entities. Events, processes and facts are also concrete. While there are some preliminary considerations of the concrete / abstract distinction in this chapter and in Metaphysics, the distinction is taken up and a number of issues regarding the abstract object XE "Object:Abstract"  resolved in Objects. It will be seen that the distinction is more one of convenience of study rather than, as is usually thought, one of kind. As will be seen the approaches to study of facts, Forms, Patterns and Laws straddle the concrete / abstract distinction The form of experience include (C) sense and feeling XE "Feeling" , percept XE "Percept"  and concept, intuition (in the sense of Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" ) and explicit knowledge, acquaintance and description (due to Russell XE "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William" ,) iconic and symbolic (including verbal) knowledge. These forms are pertinent to questions of epistemology XE "Knowledge:Epistemology" . In Human being XE "Human Being" , the forms of intuition are extended to include symbol XE "Symbol" , reason and humor. As the capacity to respond to what is unknown and what may be unexpected, humor is especially significant for it is a form of transcendence of the limits of reason and encompasses all being in potential / principle though not in fact / detail. Humor includes the idea that if encompassing all being in fact and in detail is logically inaccessible to a mode of being then encompassing all being in fact and in detail cannot be desirable to that mode of being. Death makes sense in a variety of ways; in humor death is accepted without its making sense; alternatively, in humor, death makes sense without there being explicit sense Also recognized among the forms of experience are those that are significant in science XE "Science"  and that arise in consideration of (D) this cosmological system. As will be subsequently seen, this cosmos is a highly localized and specific form of being relative to the universe (all being.) Therefore the objects of scienceas well as those of common knowledge from which science stems by experiment XE "Experiment"  and criticism, and by discovery and concept and law formationare contingent XE "Contingent"  objects and the questions of their being and nature are both theoretical and practical Another local form of experience, (E) may be called the human condition. In addition to the detailed particulars, the phrase sometimes connotes the affective rather than the cognitive side, the limits rather than the possibilities, frailty rather than strength, context XE "Context"  over time and history XE "History"  Such connotations are included but their contrary forms are not excluded. The representation of D and like forms and E is found not only in the sciences but also in the humanitiesin philosophy, in history, in art, in literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , in drama and music. Exploration, adventure and transformation XE "Transformation"  are expressions of the form E. Aesthetics and ethics XE "Morals:Ethics" , in human being, as well as in the human comprehension of any ultimate form to aesthetics XE "Aesthetics"  and ethics, are contained in the form E. In Objects XE "Object" , it will be seen how value may be understood to be an object Two further kinds may be mentionedtheir explicit definition XE "Definition"  and elaboration as forms or experience and related conclusions will be taken up later. These kinds are (F) inference and (G) category as in, e.g., Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" , Schopenhauer XE "Schopenhauer, Arthur"  and the present narrative; while these topics have been taken up in themselves it is their elaboration as forms of experience and any related conclusions that are left for further reflection. Regarding G, since there are facts beyond assumptionas will be seen, existence XE "Existence"  cannot be eternally non-manifestit will be interesting to see whether there are rules of inference beyond assumption (H) Judgment is a form of experience that may be instrumental in a transition between experience as play and experience that would have an intentional object Being XE "Being" . Being is that which existsin its entirety, or has existence XE "Existence" in its entirety The phrase in its entirety is important on account of the fact that objects are known via concepts The phrase in its entirety is used so that a compound concept will not be granted existential status under the definition XE "Definition"  when only some of its parts exist. The need to not have any dangling non-reference will be further explained in Logic XE "Logic"  Given that existence XE "Existence"  is entire, there is no distinction between existing and having existencebetween being and having being Although there is an identity between existence XE "Existence"  and being as used here, it was desirable, before revealing the identity: to discuss and resolve some problems of existence; to introduce the symbol XE "Symbol"  triad of word, concept and object; to introduce experience; and to introduce the necessary forms of experience The following topics, discussed earlier, are pertinent to discussion of being and could be placed here: the verb to be including is and its usesexistential, constitutive, and connective; that the character of existence XE "Existence" beingmay be regarded as primitive to meaning and that the form X is or X is / has being do not imply existence but express the linguistic meaning of existence / being which, on account of their necessity, require no further semantic regress; the possibility of spatio-temporal and non-spatio-temporal existence, of concrete and abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" slater, in Objects XE "Object" , the question of where abstract objects reside and whether they are indeed non-spatial andor non-temporal will be taken up and resolved; local and global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  modes of description; the immediacy of existence; that the deep character of existence / being lies in its immediate / trivial character and not in any esoteric sensebeing / existence is not esoteric but must contain whatever may be esoteric, i.e., being makes no distinction between the esoteric and the mundane; introductions to the questions Does anything exist? and What things exist? and their significance; existence versus essence; concepts and objectsand symbols; meaning, sense and reference; the paradoxes regarding the concept of existence; experience, the forms of experience and the necessary forms of experience What has being? The preliminary discussions enable a first answer but a fullmore completeanswer continues through Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , Objects XE "Object" , Logic XE "Logic"  and Meaning XE "Meaning" , Mind XE "Mind" , and Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  The necessary objectstheir existence XE "Existence" , empirical character, and properties:      Continued to the next page Details of existence XE "Existence"  of the Void XE "Void"       A full set of necessary objects. Note that while the notion of object has not been clearly specified yet, the existence XE "Existence"  of the necessary objects is necessary. The existence of an infinite variety of objectsincluding objects such as those that appear to exist in this cosmological systemwill be shown in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . Of course, not all appearances will correspond to realities. Knowledge of objects and the question of appearance and reality is further taken up in Objects XE "Object" . Objects and Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  will complete the discussion of the variety of objects Also observe that the existence XE "Existence"  of the necessary objects is empirical. First note that their conceptual character is not at all a mark of existencethis issue has been resolved earlier in discussing concept and object and the paradoxes of the concept of existence. Second, whereas the empirical character of objects in general may be in question, the empirical character of the necessary objects follows from experienceand experience itself is empirical even though its intentional objects need not be. Prior to the analysis it might, as is often the case, be thought that the source of theallegedempirical character of the objects of the world must be uniform; however, the analysis shows that the empirical character of the necessary objects lies in their meaning Why being? That is, why does the metaphysics to be developed take being as its core concept? A number of reasons may be given. However, it is important to note that, at least at a theoretical level that deploys explicit concepts, it is the development of the metaphysicsthe possibility of the metaphysics, its ultimate yet empirical characterthat, over and above extra-metaphysical reasons, that justifies adoption of being and gives final elucidation to its character In the previous paragraph, reference was made to a theoretical level that deploys explicit concepts because there is a pre-theoretical level at which the organism that is immersed in being has an experience of being and, necessarily of all-being, without recourse to symbolic concepts. If that organism does not possess the symbolic capability, it has no need for the symbolic-conceptual level. If it does possess symbolic capability, it should have no compulsory need for the symbolic-conceptual level to have and experience being-in-the-world-of-all-being It is significant that while there is a certain pre-theoretical power XE "Power"  to the idea of being, that power alone is not the source of the metaphysics. Rather, it is a variety of areas of diligence in imagination and criticism that are especially instrumental in the development of the metaphysics. These include imagination and criticism, in seeing the various aspects of the metaphysicssuggested, perhaps, by the history XE "History"  of thought and by paradigms from science XE "Science" ; in bringing various divisions of knowledge into the fold of the metaphysics; in seeing that the metaphysics reveals limits of other and not only prior divisions of thought and knowledge but also agrees with those domains within their limits; and in eradicating pre-judicial and limiting habits of thought such as substance XE "Substance"  thinking and determinism XE "Determinism"  and other kinds of essentialism with regard to common categories of thought such as the nature of the object versus the property and the subject-predicate form and its implied distinctions Thus, in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , the metaphysics of immanence, follows, first from experience and its forms, to the existence XE "Existence"  of certain necessary objectsespecially being, the universe, the void and the domainand their characteristics, and from these, by logic XE "Logic" , to the develop of the pure aspects of the metaphysics. The pure metaphysics that reveals a universe with far greater variety than might otherwise be even reasonably imagined or hypothesizedwhich in turn has implications for the nature of actuality, possibility and necessity and for the causal versus non-causal and deterministic versus indeterministic character of the universe. In parallel with development of the pure side there has been a study of the pure metaphysics in interaction with specific domains of knowledge such as physical cosmology, the theory of evolution XE "Evolution, Theory of" , and the nature of human being XE "Human Being:Nature of" . In the interactive study or applied metaphysics, the specific domains of study suggest but are not instrumental in demonstration of the pure metaphysics while the pure metaphysics has implications for foundation and content of the specific domains The ultimate character of the present development is evident, then, in its having an empirical and a logical side that are marked by certain characteristics. In beginning with experience, the empirical side does not require the existence XE "Existence"  of an external object for its foundation and, therefore, there is no room for empirical error. The characteristic of the logical side is not merely that the development is derived logically from the empirical foundation but that it founds a new concept of Logic XE "Logic"  as the one law of the universeof which the traditional concept of logic is an interpretation and the different logics XE "Logic:Logics"  chapters. A question that may arise and that is addressed in the narrative is the apparent circularity that it must be some kind of logic that lies at the root of the metaphysics that the metaphysics founds Logic The discussion, here, talks around the ultimate character of the metaphysics. This ultimate character of the metaphysics is manifest in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and Objects XE "Object"  The metaphysics has been brought to an ultimate levelone that has been glimpsed in the history XE "History"  of thought e.g. by Leibniz XE "Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm" , Hume XE "Hume, David"  and Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig"  who saw some aspect of it but provided neither demonstration nor systematic development of a whole system nor development of a system of implications. Some aspects of the system have been imagined in Indian Philosophy XE "Philosophy:Indian" , especially in Vedanta XE "Vedanta" , but, here too, what has been seen is similarly though not identically deficient It turns out that although the metaphysics implies the existence XE "Existence"  of an immense variety of objects, the pure side is empty with regard to the intentional location of the objects with respect to an individual perceiver. This intentional location is one of the topics of Objects XE "Object" . The metaphysics demonstrates the necessity of such location but not with regard to every individualthus the metaphysics is partially instrumental in addressing topics on which it is initially silent. Another topic addressed by Objects is the question of the nature and differences between concrete and abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s. Here, the metaphysics is instrumental in a definitive and rather surprising resolution to the nature of the concrete versus the abstract and the ultimate character of the metaphysics is essential to this development, i.e., while the result may be imagined or conceived independently, it cannot be demonstrated without the metaphysics or an equivalent Thus in bringing the metaphysics to an ultimate level, the theory of objects, has, in consequence, been brought to a level that exceeds its status in the history XE "History"  of thought If these claims are true, and it is the intent of the narrative that the truth XE "Truth"  of the claims should be manifest in it, then not only is the metaphysics ultimate but, since they have been raised to the same level, there must also be an ultimate character to the present study of Objects XE "Object" , of Logic XE "Logic"  and Meaning XE "Meaning" , of Mind XE "Mind" , and of Cosmology XE "Cosmology" and other lesser but significant topics The topics of Logic XE "Logic"  and meaning, Mind XE "Mind" , Cosmology XE "Cosmology" , Human World, and Method, have, in fundamental directions, also been brought to levels that exceed their prior status. The level achieved is ultimate in certain directions and these developments include conceptualizations or re-conceptualizations of Logic, Mind, Cosmos, Human being XE "Human Being" especially the nature of freedom, and Method that have an ultimate character and incorporate and validate the valid aspects of older conceptions Diligence in development of being and related concepts has been instrumental in these developments Thus, while beingbeing-in-the-world as well as the received concepthave power XE "Power" , being, as developed in this narrative, is also a receptacle for diligent and critical imagination regarding the universe and its variety The origins of the metaphysics and related developments. It is interesting to inquire about the sources of the ideas adopted in the narrative. A fundamental sourceperhaps the original oneis, of course, the common traditionsthose of everyday use and the history XE "History"  of ideas and thought. However, the meanings to be established here are notand, as will be seen, cannot beprecisely those of the traditions. The question about the origin of the present forms of the ideas can be sharpened to a question about the entire selection of ideaswhat is included, what is excluded, what is newand about the arrangement, the meshing and the unfolding of the ideas. The simple answer is that what has been arrived at is the result of experiment XE "Experiment"  and tinkering with ideas, reading and reflection, putting ideas together as interactive systems, attempting to understand and resolve both peripheral and central issues of philosophy and other disciplines, attempting to come up with a comprehensive system of understanding. Ideas and systems have come, some gone, some remained. The character of the system has morphed through several incarnations or perspectives or world views. There have been experiments with materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism" , evolutionism, idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism" , and a vague absolutism, each worked out systematically. There has been tinkering with lesser isms from the tradition. Each development has been rejected, not so much as wrong but as slanted andor inadequate. The present view which may be seen, in some ways, as amounting to the idea that foundations are not hidden or remote required the establishment of an conceptual apparatus that allowed the world as its own foundation to be ultimately simplewhile allowing complexity. It is not impossible, of course, that the present development should suffer the fate of the previous ones; however, its necessity isor appears to bemanifest in the development itself and not referred to something else or to some unfounded foundation. This present perspective XE "Perspective"  may therefore be described as an anti-perspectivethe world, not something else, is foundationand has gone through roughly seven versions in which, along with new insights and applications, the entire system of ideas has gone through incremental and interactive revision that entailed bringing the level of precision XE "Precision"  and depth XE "Depth"  of each of the major topics up to the level of the fundamental metaphysical core The question of the power XE "Power"  in the received concept of being is now addressed What are the manifest characteristics of being that make it the basic concept of a metaphysics? It may be noted that there is no precise distinction between what is received and what has been developed; the following characteristics are contained in the idea of being but, typically, become manifest only after dedicated reflection Being XE "Being"  does not distinguish between immediate and ultimate or between appearance and reality, or between categories such as process and state or the concrete and the abstract Because being makes no distinction of mode or category, it encourages and makes possible transcendence of mere perspective XE "Perspective"  at the core of the metaphysics Therefore, being is not a dedicated concept in the way thatthe common conceptions ofmind and matter are categorially dedicated Because of the lack of intrinsic distinction, being plays the role of unknown in the metaphysics. That is, the role of being in metaphysics is analogous to the role of the unknown in algebra, i.e. being permits talk of the unknown without having to trace the perimeter of the unknown. The power XE "Power"  in the idea of being includes that it enables an analytic or symbolic treatment of metaphysics over a merely iconic treatment While the idea of being has been criticized as being flat, shallow or trivial, it is the very triviality that is a source of its depth XE "Depth"  and its inclusive character The depth XE "Depth"  lies, at least in part, in that the world is not referred, for its understanding, to something else. That reference to itselfwhich is not self-referentiality of a conceptshould permit the development of the metaphysics of ultimate simplicity that emerges in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  may be surprising. However, it is not surprising in that reference to something else already necessitates infinite regress of explanation for explanation without dissatisfaction. It may also be surprising that, as will be seen in Metaphysics, that reference to all being is instrumental in the development of the power XE "Power"  of the metaphysics. However, as has already been seen, this reference is empirical. Even though the empirical character is innate, its recognition required diligent reflection on the meaning of being and of all being In its superficiality, the metaphysics of immanence is similar to the thought in analytic philosophy XE "Philosophy:Analytic"  that it is desirable to seek explanations in superficial termsand not necessarily, as in some parts of science XE "Science" , in terms of depth XE "Depth" . However, in developing metaphysics of immanence it will be seen that what is superficial is not necessarily obvious. That what is not obvious may be superficial has already been seen to be implicit in the idea of being Although it is sometimes regarded as esoteric, being is in fact both conceptual and empirical. I.e., being is a low level concept and the empirical / low level character together with its lack of distinction that make for its power XE "Power"  The idea is simultaneously symbolic and embedding. That is, being is instrumental in seeing human being as in and of the world rather than alien to or remote from the world in its mundane and esoteric aspects. Use of the idea of being, rather than the ideas of mind or matter, is a return to robust being-in-the-worlda return to a robust view of the real XE "Real, the"  that contrasts what has been called the hypothetico-deductive character of science XE "Science"  without rejecting what is powerful in science Finally, use of the word being encourages adoption or adaptation of what may be seen as valuable from the tradition of thought on the real XE "Real, the"  nature of things that falls under the idea of being Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  is core to the system of ideas and partial foundation for the other significant concepts from Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  and Human World. These concepts also provide partial foundation for and suggest approaches to transformation XE "Transformation"  In addition to its pivotal role in the ideas and the journey XE "Journey" , the metaphysics also seeks to be a contribution to thought What is metaphysics? A common conception is that metaphysics is the study of the real XE "Real, the"  nature of things. What separates the nature of a thing from the thing itself? Is the nature of one entity XE "Entity"  completely separable from that of other entitiesof the universe? Answers to these questions may depend on the study of the nature of things and of the universe. It is therefore probably mistaken to attempt a precise characterization of metaphysics at the outset of study. At outset a tentative characterization such as study of the real nature of things may be adequate. It may later be possible, as a result of study, to characterize metaphysics In order to connect to the tradition it will be useful to mention some prior conceptions of metaphysics Various conceptions of metaphysics have been suggested in the history XE "History"  of ideasit is an inquiry into what exists, it is the study of what exists insofar as it exists, it is the study of what is real rather than what is merely apparent, it is the study of the world or universe as a whole, it is the study of first principles or ultimate and irrefutable truths. That these ideas are likely to be related is clearit is also reasonably clear that the ideas are not exclusivehowever, the actual relations may become clear only after study; and, if this is true, it may also be true that an actual evaluation will be possible only after metaphysics is complete It is also clear that the related ideas may define impossible projectsit is not given that it is possible to know the real XE "Real, the"  nature of things. There is, however, a common mistake regardingknowledge ofthe real nature of things: it is to suppose that such knowledge isroughlyuniformly possible or uniformly impossible for most if not all things and kinds of thing. It has already been seen that the universe as a wholei.e. all being as all-being without regard to detailmay be known; the void as void may be conceived and this conception will turn out to count as knowing the void; the fact of experience may be known; domain and complement may be known Whatever other things may be known shall or may fall out of study and this study which begins in this chapter is formally completed in Objects XE "Object"  with details taken up in later chapters. The various conceptions of metaphysics from history XE "History"  may be suggestive and mayor may notbe eclectically incorporated into any final notion of metaphysics Whatever metaphysics may turn out to be, it is perhaps clear, however, that it should not be the study of what is remote or esoteric for what is most real should, at least in some way, not distinguish immediate from remote. The most basic aspects of things will notat outsetmake distinctions such as near or remote, physical or spiritual XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual" , hidden or immediate. This suggests that metaphysics begin as a study of what is insofar as it iswhat exists insofar as it exists or being as being Perhaps being as being may be too broad a category to be the subject of productive study. Recall the necessary objects or aspects of beingexperience and its forms or concepts, being, universe, change, difference and domain, complement and void. Logical development from the necessary objects and their properties will be seen to result in a metaphysics that is explicitly ultimate in depth XE "Depth"  and implicitly ultimate in breadth or varietythe meanings of italicized the terms in this sentence will be clarified in what follows. Since, as seen in Being XE "Being" , the universe contains all form, pattern XE "Pattern"  and law as immanent in being, the metaphysics is called metaphysics of immanence. This metaphysical development, together with whatever further concepts are faithful to objects, may be labeled pure metaphysics. Pure metaphysics, then, is the part of the theory of being that is the result of demonstration, i.e., showing XE "Proof:Showing"  by recognition, by analysis of meaning and by proof XE "Proof" . Further information is needed to situate this world in the world revealed in the pure metaphysics. That the concepts or forms of experience are necessary objects does not imply that there are objects that correspond even roughly to the concepts even though it may be reasonable to suppose that in an adapted world there should be some objects that roughly conform to some concepts. Note that in the previous sentence, (rough) correspondence does not mean that somewhere there is object that has some match with the concept but has the stronger sense that there is a lock between concept and object, e.g. a causal link between an actual mountain and the perception of the mountain. Taking the various forms of experiencethe variety of conceptsas corresponding, perhaps only approximately, to objects results in a picture of this world whose foundation is not as purely logical as the pure metaphysics. However, the pure metaphysics is instrumental in situating this worldand perhaps other kinds of sub-domainin the universe via the concept of the normal introduced later It may of course be necessary to be selective with regard to what forms are realistic and here, the most basic forms such as self and other and the objects of science XE "Science"  may be suggested but not accepted without further scrutiny There is or shall be, perhaps, no absolute distinction of pure metaphysics from other studies. As the study of the variety of being, cosmology intersects not only normal behavior and domains but also the entities encountered in pure metaphysics. Whatever is true in science XE "Science" , religion XE "Faith:Religion" , myth XE "Fiction:Myth" , literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , drama, art, history XE "History"  and imagination must fall under metaphysics even though the study may be specialized. In the present meaning, metaphysics includes what is most immediate. There is another meaning of metaphysics, that emphasizes an interest in the occult arts. This otherperhaps derivativemeaning is foreign to the present one. However, if the occult arts contain truth XE "Truth" , may intersect metaphysics in its present meaning. The present metaphysics is neutral with respect to the idea of metaphysics-as-occult-art The approach to study. Plato XE "Plato"  suggested power XE "Power" having an effectas central to the concept of being. Platos suggestion is eminently reasonableit is via effect that there is awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  of things and things without any direct or indirect effect may be conceived but their being has no effect on or in this world. A discovery of the present metaphysics is that its study may be approached via logic XE "Logic" as is seen in the present chapter and in Logic, it may be expected that this results from and implies a new conception of logic. It will be seen that there is no separate part of the universe without an effect on this partor any other part. The present approach, then, is to start from logic and to then connect to the concept of power This chapter has the following aims. (1) To develop the metaphysics of immanence. (2) As part of and in light of this development, to provide foundation for and to refine the ideas from Being XE "Being"  though Faith XE "Faith" ; to set up subsequent developments through Faith; and to provide partial foundation for transformation XE "Transformation" . (3) To review and clarify the conceptions of philosophy and metaphysics and their relation to the history XE "History"  of ideas; and to catalog, clarify and set forth resolutions to the classic and modern problems of metaphysics. The review, deferred to the sections Philosophy XE "Philosophy"  and metaphysics and Problems in metaphysics is made possible by the metaphysics of immanence which enables an ultimate conception of philosophy and metaphysics and clarification / resolution of a number of central problems of metaphysics Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  of immanence The main concepts of the metaphysics. The essential concepts of the metaphysics shall be seen to be, first, the pre-metaphysical conceptsexperience and concept or forms of experience which include experience itself and the fact of experience and, second, the metaphysical conceptsbeing, universe, void, logos or logic XE "Logic"  or form or object, and post-metaphysical concept of the normal. The terms pre- and post-metaphysical do not have the connotation XE "Meaning:Connotation"  have no implicit or explicit location within the metaphysics. The pre-metaphysical concepts are those that provide foundation for the metaphysics in this world / experience. The normal is post-metaphysical in that it is instrumental in locating this world in the universe as revealed in the metaphysics There are restrictive and expansive senses of metaphysics and cosmology. All metaphysical concepts fall under the expansive meaning of cosmology. However, since it distinguishes varieties of behavior, unlike the other metaphysical concepts above, the normal may be seen falling under cosmology in its restrictive sense. The remarks of this paragraph will be clarified later in the narrative To follow the narrative, it is essential to be aware of the present meanings as defined in the development and to avoid distraction by other meaningseither common or specialized. This injunction should not be taken to imply that other meanings and shades of meaning should not be considered for their suggestive power XE "Power"  or for improvement of the developments Outline. The metaphysics is developed as ten topics arranged in three sets of reflections The first set of reflections is the core of the pure metaphysics that concerns necessary conclusions about and deriving from the necessary objects. The conclusions are organized, roughly according to the object on which they are based, as the following topics. (1) Demonstrationby recognition and naming, analysis of meaning and use, and proof XE "Proof" of the existence XE "Existence"  of the generic necessary objects: experience, being, universe, void, domain and so on. (2) Conclusions from the existence and properties of the universe. (3) Conclusions from the existence and properties of the void. (4) Conclusions from the existence of domains and their complements. (5) Development of the concept of the normal and its relation to the probable It is often thought that metaphysics as theory of being is not and cannot be empirical. However, empirical content is built into the forms of experiencei.e. that forms of experience have being is undeniable. This does not mean that all the formsconceptshave corresponding objects. However, as has been seen, the very general concepts such as experience itself, being, the universeall beingand so on have objects and this may be seen in a way that is empirical e.g. the experience of all being. That such assertions are empirical lies in their meaning, e.g. given experience there is a worldat least of experience. The existence XE "Existence"  of experience and the general forms as objects is given but not necessarily as external objects. I.e., the existence of an external world does not follow from experience and its forms. While infinitesimal doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  exists regarding the existence of theanexternal world, there is doubt. The point to such doubt in this narrative is a sharpening of tools of analysis and improved understanding of the world. I.e., such doubt is not laid out as a system of positive knowledge. This doubt is addressed by what will subsequently labeled the fundamental principle ofthe theory ofbeing or of the metaphysics of immanence. The claim regarding absence of empirical content may of courseat least in common sense termsbe true regarding a statement such as there is distant a world that is beyond the present limit of measurement even when extended by scientific theory that is similar to this world. This claimand other similar claimscannot, of course, be empirical since the phrasing of the claim rules out the possibility of its being empirical. One of the aims of the metaphysics of immanence is to examine whether the existence of such worldsand other non-empirical objectscan be established by non-empirical means. The fundamental principle shows the possibility and necessity of the existence an immensely broad range of non-empirical objects. Further, the demonstration of the fundamental principle has both empirical and rationallogicalelements and is, therefore, partially empirical in character The necessary conclusions are followed by normal or, roughly, probable conclusions about the nature of particular domainsespecially this cosmological system and its sentient forms. Here concern is with those forms of experienceconceptsthe existence XE "Existence"  of whose objects is in doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  for a variety of reasons and the proof XE "Proof"  of existence is not as directly forthcoming as in the case of the necessary objects. The first doubt is that if the concept is not the object, whether the object exists. Again, the doubt is infinitesimal but there is learning to be derived from entertaining the doubt; the doubt is nottypicallyput forward as a system of positive knowledge. The second doubt is that of faithfulness XE "Faithfulness" . These conclusions are, roughly, probableoften to a degree such that exceptions are extremely unlikely over times of interest. The exceptions to normal behavior, significant over longer periods, are essential in universal perspectives. The topics are as follows. (6) Conclusions from and about specific empirical forms. (a) The fact and form of experience or sentience XE "Mind:Sentience" . (b) The form and existence of particular domains, especially this cosmological system Whereas the first two sets of reflections are reflections on the worldthe universe in its general featuresthe third set is a collection of reflections on the metaphysics itselfand on its development. These reflections include doubts and counterarguments regarding the metaphysics, and skepticism and faith which concerns attitudes toward doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  (since neither skepticism nor faith need be absolute, one termeither skepticism or faithmay suffice,) considerations on method or approach, and, finally an assessment of the status of the metaphysics so far. The topics follow immediately (7) Objections and counterarguments that arise in reflecting on the development of the metaphysics. (8) Faith XE "Faith"  and affirmationversus unlimited rationality. (9) Method or approach. Method concerns the approach to development of the metaphysics. Two preliminary observations are pertinent. First, method does nota prioristand over study of objects but arises in study. Second, while study of necessary objects has a necessary character, the study of normal objects has necessary and contingent XE "Contingent"  aspects. The necessary character of normal objects occurs in that they exemplify necessary objects and the contingent character arises from the particular details overlaid on the necessary. (10) The status of the metaphysics so far The development of the metaphysics of immanence, having begun in Being XE "Being" , now continues in three sets of reflections labeled The core of the pure metaphysics, The metaphysics of normal objects, and Reflections on the metaphysics and its development. Developments from Being may be repeated in full or abbreviated form and with or without proofs The core of the pure metaphysics Demonstrationby recognition and naming, analysis of meaning and use, and proof XE "Proof" of the existence XE "Existence"  of the generic necessary objects The demonstration is in Being XE "Being"  which has clarification of the nature of demonstration and further details The existence XE "Existence"  of the following necessary objects was demonstrated in Being XE "Being" : experience and its forms; being; the universe or all being and which contains all objects, especially all form, pattern XE "Pattern"  and law; difference, domain and complement which exists when the domain exists; change and before and now and after; and the void or absence of being which contains no objectespecially no form, no pattern and no law It is possible to raise an objection that what was identified in Being XE "Being"  as experience is not, in fact, experience or, even, that it does not exist. It is hard to know precisely what to say to someone who asserts that, in fact, experience does not exist. The first counter may be What is it that does not exist? The objection appeared to agree that experience has meaning but to then assert that experience does not exist. Perhaps the objection is that experience is immaterial or insignificantthe response to this would be that the material character of experience is not relevant to the development here even though the development has implications for its material or immaterial character and that significance cannot be addressed without some framework such as the present framework. I.e., a free-floating objection experience is insignificant lacks meaning. What of the objection that experience-as-in-this-narrative is not experience? One meaning of this objection may be that experience-as-in-this-narrative does not exist: in this meaning the objection has already been addressed. Another meaning is that what is here called experience should not be so called or is a trivial meaning. Again, this objection may be addressed in human terms or in relation to a framework. If the objection is that experience is irrelevant to human being, the first answer is that it is certainly relevant and important to this human beingand to many others. A second answer is that experience is important in terms of what can be done with the conceptand this will also be the answer in terms of a framework or system of ideas. This answer, of course, lies in the development of the metaphysics and it is for this reason that it has been relevant to raise the issue at this point Conclusions from the existence XE "Existence"  and properties of the universe A Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  of Immanence XE "Metaphysics:of Immanence" . Recall that the universe is all being and contains all objects: all things or entities and processes, all Form XE "Form" , Pattern XE "Pattern"  and Lawthis is the first source of the name metaphysics of immanence. The thought to use that name includes the idea that that things of the mind, which are often assigned a secondary existential status or perhaps even a non-existential status, are, after all, real. The forms of experience or sentience XE "Mind:Sentience"  and all of its constituent and related ideas such as percept XE "Percept" , concept, feeling XE "Feeling" , awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness" , idea, thought, image, are in the universe. Thus far, the existence XE "Existence"  of Form, Pattern and Law outside has not been shownthis demonstration will be given in conclusions from the properties of the void. What is clear, here, is that if there are Forms outside experience, then those Forms along with forms of experience are equally real and areimmanentin the universe Clearly, on the existence XE "Existence"  of an external worldan existence that does not depend on experience for its existenceexperience need not go to the root of being. Whether there is an external world and, then, whether a valid extension of the concept of experience is co-extensive with being will be taken up in discussing conclusions from the existence of the void It is important to be clear about the meaning of immanence. That Forms are immanent in being does not mean that there is some external object or idea that is attached to or enmeshed with being. It means that Form XE "Form"  is of being: since there is nothing and not just no-thing outside the universeoutside beingit cannot be otherwise Actuality XE "Modality:Actuality" , possibility and necessity. If an event (thing) is described but never occurs (exists,) it cannot be possible. If it occurs or exists, it is possible I.e. actuality and possibility are identical in their reference even though apparently distinct with regard to sense Since actuality and possibility are identical, they must both be identical to necessity. That is, what is cannot not beit would be if the universe were otherwise but the universe is not and cannot be otherwise. The meaning of necessity so introduced and its relation to other meaningsmeanings that have arisen without benefit of the metaphysics under developmentis analyzed in Logic XE "Logic"  In fact a definite concept of possibility has been introduced. This concept of possibility, which refers to possibility of occurrence in the universe is absolute possibility It may be thought that some other notion of possibility may be retained, but since there is nothing outside the universe, the sense of absolute or universal possibility must be identical to the sense of actualityeven though there may be an expectation of a different sense. I.e. a different sense could be deployed before reflection but it would have to be modified to the new senseelse it would be sense-less Relative or contextual possibility refers to occurrence in a similar context XE "Context" . Relative to the universe, there is no other context. When the context is the universe, relative possibility is absolute possibility Absolute possibility will be seen to be logical possibility Physical possibility is a form of relative possibility. The prototype of physical possibility is consistency XE "Consistency"  with the laws of physics The common or nave concept of possibility is a kind of relative possibility Absolute possibility should not be confused with the common conceptit is easy to fall into this confusion The identity of the possible and the necessary and the varieties of necessity are taken up in discussion of conclusions from the existence XE "Existence"  and properties of the void Conclusions from the existence XE "Existence"  and properties of the void Existence XE "Existence"  and fundamental properties of the void. That the void contains no Object XE "Object" , no Form XE "Form" , no Pattern XE "Pattern"  or Law and that it exists has been shown earlier in Being XE "Being" . Because the existence of the void is essential to development of the metaphysics, (a) some alternate proofs are given in the next paragraph, and (b) it is important entertain doubts about the validity of the demonstrations. General objections and counterarguments are taken up later in this chapter Doubts about the existence XE "Existence"  of the void. First, repeat the proof XE "Proof"  of existence of the void given so far. As the complement of the universe relative to itself or the complement of any element of being relative to itself, the void exists. A variant proof. The complement of a part exists. As the part approaches the whole, the complement exists at every stage of the approach and its limit is the void An objection to the proof XE "Proof"  of existence XE "Existence"  of the void. The idea of part is conceptual and the content of a concept should not imply anything about the world. Counterargumentif existence is merely recognition of variety, part is not merely conceptual (if part is defined by a conceptual property, the particular part may be merely conceptual) An objection to the proof XE "Proof"  that the void contains no Object XE "Object" no Form XE "Form" , Pattern XE "Pattern"  or Law. The discussion in this paragraph may anticipate some later developments and the phrase as noted may refer to later developments. The universe was defined as all being and it was therefore concluded that, since there can be nothing outside the universe, it must contain all Objects etc. However, that the universe contains all actual object XE "Actual object" s does not imply that it contains all logically possible objects. Therefore, the proof that the void contains no objects is a proof that it contains no actual objects and it may contain other logically possible objects. Counterargumentthe premise of the object is valid but the conclusion is simply incorrect: the void contains no objects whatsoever and this property of the void is seen, below, to imply that the universe must contain all logically possible objects. Observationthe objection may, however, appear to show that the identification of the possible and the actual is incorrect. This, however, is also incorrect since, regarding all being, there can be nothing that is possible but not actualthe idea of possibility encompassing more than actuality is valid only for a context XE "Context"  that is not all being, i.e., as noted, there are different senses of possibility: unqualified possibility, which as noted is logical possibility, and contextual possibility which includes unqualified possibilitywhen the context has no limitsand physical possibility, i.e., universes or cosmologies that may be different from this one but that obey the physical laws of this one. It is interesting that since, as noted, the universe is seamless, the concept of physical possibility may be a rough one or, at least, require further clarification or investigation Alternate proofs of the existence XE "Existence"  of the void. As a result of doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" , alternate proofs of the existence of the void may be useful. The alternate proofs now follow. (1) That the void exists is not intrinsically paradoxical. The existence of the void should be equivalent to its non-existence; therefore the void may be taken to exist. (2) Attaching the void to an entity XE "Entity"  makes no difference to the constitution XE "Constitution"  of the entity; therefore the void may be taken to exist. (3) In physics the zero force may be said to exist; it is the force that does not change uniform motion; this of course is not a proof XE "Proof"  of the existence of the void but shows that existence may be assigned to a quantity of zero magnitude A clarification. If the universe has a non-manifest phase, that phase will be the void; of course this final item does not at all prove existence XE "Existence"  of the void but provides one way to see how it may be real rather than merely a conceptual fiction XE "Fiction"  An inductive proof XE "Proof"  of the existence XE "Existence"  of the void. In science XE "Science"  the proof of a law or theory from data is a generalization. Of course, the generalization is not a mere generalization for there is some attempt to discern a pattern XE "Pattern"  or symmetry XE "Symmetry" perhaps of the object, perhaps of the laws or theory developed so farand the generalization or modificationexpresses the discerned patterns. However since alternative patterns may be possible, the scientific laws and theories retain an hypothetical nature. This kind of inference has been called induction XE "Induction"  and is considered further in Logic XE "Logic" . The study of inductive inference has included attempts to make induction more secure. An empiricist program sometimes called positivism attemptedprimarily in the first half of the twentieth centuryto show how theoretical inference necessarily follows from the data but the flaw of the approach is already visible in the nature of induction; positivism is no longer thought to be viable. Alternative approaches stressed simplicity and beautyand probabilistic inference. After the failure of positivism, some approaches of the twentieth century stressed the hypothetical character of science but emphasized the idea that theories become accepted as more and more confirming data and successful applications build up. Thus even though being open to disconfirmation, scientific theories become accepted on account of their successand such features as simplicity, beauty, symmetry, the existence of conservation laws, and probabilistic inference when possible add to the confidence in the theories. It is key, then, in this line of twentieth century thought that while there is confidence and realism in scientific theories, there is openness to revision, the real XE "Real, the" ism is a limited realism and there is an inevitable hypothetical character to scientific theories. One way of looking at this situation is that at any given time, the received theories have validity in a limited domain. As theory and improved measurement makes new realms of phenomena possible, data from new domainsthe microscopic realm, remote regions in space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time, objects of higher energy, spectra of higher or lower frequencybecomes visible and may put the current theories in doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" ; and new theory may arise that subsumes both new and old data and reveals the older theory to be a special case. This view of the progression of science may be called hypothetical-progressive or revolutionary. In Logic, an alternative though not contradictory view of the nature of theory will be argued but here the revolutionary view will be used to argue for proof of the existence of the voidand, more generally, to argue the metaphysics of immanence Regard the existence XE "Existence"  of the void and the metaphysics of immanence as being introduced hypothetically as an attempt to bring coherence into the split between empirical observation that even when enhanced by scientific theory can only see so far and the fact that there is no reason in either science XE "Science"  or reason to assume that the boundary of the empirical world is the boundary of the actual world. First, note that the metaphysics does not contradict science or valid common sense in their domainsof course both science and the metaphysics do necessary violence to a variety of aspects of common sense. In fact, as will become evident, the metaphysics provides immense illumination of the nature and the theories of science. Second, the metaphysics recognizes and reveals the empirical character of a number of concepts that might seem metaphysical in the esoteric sense but are not so. An example is the universe as all being; the concept is esoteric if by universe reference is made to remote detail; however, if reference is made only to the fact that there is both immediate and remote detail that both lie within the universe but reference is not made to the distinctions implied by the concept of detail then universe is empirical. Whereas empirical sciencewhich includes its theoriesdoes not manifestly recognize the universethe metaphysics does and does so empirically and without inconsistency. Third, the metaphysics has a host of predictions, developed throughout the narrative, and that are open to being disconfirmed. The parallel of the void to the quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  vacuum is a qualitative confirmationeven though the void and the quantum vacuum are not identical; this lack of identity might be a disconfirmation of either metaphysics of immanence or quantum theory if the other were given. Note that although the claim has been made that the proof XE "Proof"  of the metaphysics is a logical proof, since the objective here is to give an inductive argument the logical proof is set aside. Finally, the metaphysics introduces vast symmetry XE "Symmetry"  from the identities of metaphysics and logic XE "Logic" , to logic as the law of being, to the equivalence of all states of the universe, to details of logic as developed in Logic The fundamental principle of the metaphysics of immanence also called the fundamental principle of the theory of being or, simply, the fundamental principleif a concept, picture or description has no internal or external contradiction, it must be realized from the void. This has the obvious and immediate generalizationif a concept, picture or description has no internal or external contradiction, it must be realized from any state. Andevery non-contradictory state is realized. Demonstration of the principle: the non-realization of a non-contradictory concept would be a Law of the void; however the void contains no Law; therefore every non-contradictory concept must be and is realized. The principle is the cornerstone of the metaphysics and, therefore, it is crucial to take up Objections and counterarguments and this is done below In the statement of the fundamental principle, having no internal or external contradiction is roughly equivalent to being logical. To replace the first phrase in quotes by the second would seem to be circular for the question then arises as to what it means to be logical. That it is not circular may be seen that while the substitution suggests a notion ofan aspect oflogic XE "Logic" , the discovery of the principles of logic is empirical in that the discovery involves trial and error. Further, of the fundamental principles of logicidentity, non-contradiction, and excluded middlethe principle of identity is near tautology XE "Tautology" , the principle of the excluded middle XE "Excluded middle, principle of"  is questionable, and, therefore, the principle of non-contradiction is, perhaps, the essential principle of logic The non-circular character of the idea of being logical may be explained by appeal to adaptation of description, grammar and so on. Such explanations which are not proofs but may be reasons for belief have been labeled transcendental XE "Transcendental"  The fundamental principle has the following trivial consequences Any consistent class of concepts, pictures or descriptions is and must be realizedthis is a restatement of the principle Care is needed in considering what is consistent and therefore actual. Consider There is an individual who knows everything! Although the claim may seem absurd, there is no explicit logical impossibility XE "Modality:Impossibility" . However, depending on what know everything is taken to mean, there may be a logical impossibility relative to that meaning. Additionally assuming a fine grained structure such as that of this cosmological system it may be contingently impossibleimpossible relative to the assumed structurefor organisms to know all facts of the universe or even of the cosmos Properties of the void. Any void generates every void. It is irrelevant whether the number of voids is taken to be infinite, finite but greater than one, or just one. The number of voids may be taken to be one From every state, including the void state, every other state is accessible i.e. no state is inaccessiblean exception to accessibility might be the contradictory states which need not be mentioned since they need not be regarded as states The universe entersand leavesa state of being the void When in the void state, the universe must leave it for a manifest statethis resolves the classic problem why there is anything at all or why there is something rather than nothing that Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin" and othersregarded as the fundamental problem of metaphysics There is an improvement to this resolution to the fundamental problem as follows. Either there is something or not. In the latter case, the void existsand it follows from the fundamental principle that something did and will exist. Temporally, it is not necessary that there is an eternal state of manifest beingas seen above, the universe must phase in and out of the manifest state The fundamental principle, just shown to be true, is the assertion that the entire system of consistent descriptions XE "Descriptions, system of consistent"  ismust berealized; that is, the only universal fictions are the logical contradictionsfact is stranger than fiction XE "Fiction"  From science XE "Science" , religion XE "Faith:Religion" , myth XE "Fiction:Myth" , literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , drama, art, history XE "History"  and imagination, whatever system of concepts, descriptions and pictures hold without contradiction is and must be realizedthe universe contains all mystery Since the possible and the actual are identical, all possible states are realized. It will be seen that Logic XE "Logic"  may be taken to be theory of possibility or, equivalently, the theory of descriptions ofallactual states and, further, that Logic is theonelaw of the Universe XE "Universe" of all being without exception If a metaphysics is thought to be an attempt to encompass all that exists, the metaphysics revealed by the fundamental principle is a successful metaphysics. Other successful metaphysical systems can be no broaderand, as will be seen, no deeper The metaphysics is ultimate in breadth in that it encompasses the variety of being What is conceivable is of the highest consistent order of infinity. What is explicitly describablein linear language XE "Language" is of a lower order of infinity. Therefore, the variety of being cannot be encompassed by a linear sequence of descriptions While the metaphysics does not provide a scheme to describe all states, it encompasses them and, so, the breadth is implicit In other words, the discovery of the variety of being is without end. This may be seen as good The fundamental principle and its consequences clearly seem to violate common sense and science XE "Science" . The resolution of any apparent contradiction or paradox XE "Paradox"  is taken up below in discussing the concept of the normal. Apparent violations of common sense and science are also addressed below in the discussion of Objections and counterarguments Discussion consequences of the fundamental principle continues immediately and in the chapters Objects XE "Object"  through Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  and the divisions Human World through Transformation Further properties of the void. The void exists and contains no thing, Form XE "Form" , Pattern XE "Pattern"  or Law; i.e., since, as will be seen in Objects XE "Object"  thing and form fall under object, the void contains no objectthis has merely repeated the definition XE "Definition"  and properties of the void already established The void is simple. The simplicity of the void is ultimatethis thought is taken up below in the discussion of substance XE "Substance"  and determinism XE "Determinism" . Since all states may be seen as coming fromequivalent tothe void, the simplicity of the void may be seen as conceptual rather than factual The void may be regarded as containing all non-existent and only non-existent objects. This thought, logically nice but perhaps without practical significance, becomes transparent in Objects XE "Object"  The number of voids may be taken to be oneor, when convenient, finitely or infinitely many Every element of being, including the void and the universe, may be regarded as being associated with its own void. Every element of beingincluding the universe in a manifest statemay experience annihilation XE "Annihilation"  at any time. Although stated in terms of the void so as to bring out its properties, annihilation and creationnext paragraphmay be established directly from the fundamental principle of the metaphysics A void need not be regarded as being attached to any manifest elementthis implies spontaneous creation anywhere and anytime. These thoughts on creation and annihilation XE "Annihilation"  have a cosmological nature Sources of focus on the void. In Being XE "Being" , it was noted that selection of the idea of being as fundamental was experimental. The experimentation with ideas involved not one but a number of concepts including those of void, universe, substance XE "Substance"  and determinism XE "Determinism"  Initially there were a variety of intuitions that suggested the significance of the void. In the heart of a forest there was an experience of identity with all being andperhaps thereforeabsence of being. Focus on being suggests focus on absence of being. From theoretical physics, the creation of amanifest phase of theuniverse from a non-manifest phase need not violate conservation of energy. Therefore, it seemed that the transformations and possibilities of being might be understood by seeing all being as equivalent to the void. This might show how to see changelessness behind change (Parmenides) The final inspiration XE "Inspiration"  in the shadow of mountainsan inspiration to focus on the void rather than on this cosmological system. This thought permitted transition from suggestion and intuition to logic XE "Logic"  There are varieties of voidism XE "Void:Voidism"  XE "Metaphysics:Voidism"  in Indian and Judaic thought. Sartre and Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin"  felt nothingness to be important. Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" , Hume XE "Hume, David"  and Leibniz XE "Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm"  implicitly skirt the idea of the void in their suggestions that the only impossibilities are logical. Leibniz says this explicitly; Hume and Wittgenstein say something equivalenti.e., from the truth XE "Truth"  of one atomic proposition the truth of another does not follow. Humes form omitted the word atomic On substance XE "Substance"  and determinism XE "Determinism" . Absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" . The concept of absolute indeterminism is that no state shall be inaccessiblethat from any state, no state shall be unaccessed. From the fundamental principle, the universe and the void are absolutely indeterministic It might seem that, under absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , structure would be impossible and, in particular, this cosmological system would be impossible. However, since no state is inaccessible, structure is necessaryand the existence XE "Existence"  of this cosmological system is necessary. These logical conclusions provide no explanation: explanations will be given later in discussing. However, there is also the following logical point If the universe is absolutely indeterministic in that no state shall be unaccessed, it must also be absolutely deterministic in that all states shall be accessedthis shows the logical necessity of structure and of this cosmos The kind of determinism XE "Determinism"  of the previous paragraph is atemporal and is distinct from temporal determinism in which the state of the universe at any time determines its state at all times Under temporal determinism XE "Determinism" , the future of the universe is determined by the present. However, since every point in time is or was or will be a present point in time, under determinism, the history XE "History"  of the universe is determined by its present. Since the present cannot be otherwise, the history of the universe is determined. This odd conclusion under determinism is contradicted by the metaphysics of immanence A classical substance XE "Substance"  is a uniform and unchanging thing or object from which all variety and change manifest. The idea of classical substance arises, perhaps, from a desire to explain the complex from the simplee.g., to explain the origin of a formed cosmological system On Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin" s thought. In repudiating substance XE "Substance" , Heidegger went, roughly, one third of the way to an ultimate metaphysics. The remaining steps are the overcoming of determinism XE "Determinism" as well as common causation XE "Causation" and related habits of thought; and replacing intuition by logic XE "Logic"  or, perhaps, seeing identity of intuition and logic. Thus, though Heidegger saw the importance of eliminating substance, he did not succeed in eliminating it Monism. Monism is the theory that there is one substance XE "Substance" . However, a concern immediately arises. How would monism explain variety and change? Where in the real XE "Real, the" m of the uniform is the varied, where in the realm of the unchanging is the changing? The problems of monism are one source of dualism Dualism. Dualism is the theory that there are two or more categorially distinct substances. Dualism, however runs into the same problem of explanation because the variety in the world is infinite. A theory with infinitely many substances is no longer simple and explanation of change may require reference to shifting combinations and illusion. How do shifting combinations occur if the substances are unchanging? How do they combine if without structure and categorially distinct. Illusion may explain change and variety but this explanation is illicit for the perceiver, too, must be of substance XE "Substance"  The problem of substance XE "Substance"  theory is the problem of determinism XE "Determinism" . Why is substance theory unable to explain the complex in terms of the simple? It is because there is anperhaps implicitrequirement that the explanation be deterministic i.e. that the properties of the complex explicitly fall out ofeven if not seen inthe simple. The apparent simplicity of determinism is consistent with the original desire for simplicity in substance Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  of substance XE "Substance"  and metaphysics of determinism XE "Determinism"  are duals. It is the tacit assumption of determinism that makes substance theory untenable, that requires the proliferation of substances that still provides no relief. The establishment of formation from the void and the recognition of the absolutely indeterministic character of the universe shows that substance theory is untenable and unnecessary Determinism is the forgotten twin of substance XE "Substance"  theory There is a connection between determinism XE "Determinism"  and determinate form The Void XE "Void"  and the elimination of substance XE "Substance" . The void may assume some aspects of the role of substance but is not a true substanceas has been seen, the void may be taken to be the basis of explanation that was sought in substance However, since the void is not deterministic, it would be improper to refer to the void as a substance XE "Substance" . The void is not a true substance. There is another reason for not regarding the void as a substance. This reason, already noted, is that although the void may be thought of a base state relative to which formation and origins occur, under absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  the role of base state may be played by any state of the universe. It is equally valid to regard any state of the universeincluding that of the voidas the sub-stance of all being Yet another reason for not regarding the void as substance XE "Substance"  is that though voidism XE "Void:Voidism"  XE "Metaphysics:Voidism"  may have been regarded as a substance theory in certain developments of the past, here voidism is not the foundationthe metaphysics does not start with the void and there is nowhere any assumption of the fundamental character of a category or entity XE "Entity"  of being as in materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism" , idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism"  and so on. Instead, the foundation is that there is beingwhich is neither assumed nor proved but may be seen as a restatement or certain recognition of the given character of experience and which requires no further clarification but may be seen as empirical fact. The existence XE "Existence"  and characteristics of the voidand the universe and other necessary objectsand the metaphysical consequences are all derived from this foundation Simplicity of the void. The void and its absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  are simpler than substance XE "Substance"  The void is ultimately simple. The void and absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  are absolutely simple because they place no explanatory requirements on the elements of being. The simplicity of substance XE "Substance"  is a defined simplicityi.e., via a stated uniform, unchanging and deterministic character a simplicity is built into the concept of substance. The simplicity of the void is different in natureit is not defined or built in. The universe is all being and the void is the absence of being and it follows from the definitions that the void contains no objectsi.e., no form, pattern XE "Pattern"  or law. The simplicity of the void is a conceptual simplicityless is said about the character of the void than must be said about the character of substance. This gives the void what may be called a creative freedom that substance cannot have Another motive to substance XE "Substance"  theory, perhaps related to the motive to explaining the complex from the simple, is that under determinism XE "Determinism"  and without substances, there is no explanation of being that terminates at some concrete place, that explanation is either incomplete or (andor) non-terminating i.e. without end From the void there may be both finite and infinite chains of explanation. The generic explanation of being is finite A non-relativist philosophy without substance XE "Substance" . A relativist philosophy or metaphysics is one that has no foundation at which its system of explanation terminates and, therefore, does need to employ substances in its explanatory schemeif there is one. The relativist systems of explanation must either terminate at a point that is not foundational and therefore not regarded as secure or have infinite regress; such systems may be unsatisfying but the discomfort may be endured on the grounds of intellectual honesty. A non-relativist philosophy or metaphysics is one whose system of explanation does terminate in some foundation that is regarded as secure. It is commonly thought that a non-relativist system must acknowledge substance or substancesat least in the most generic sense of the term in which a substance need not be modeled after physical or mental substance and so on, i.e., enduring particulars but could be events, processes, or facts. It is further commonly held that in order to make sense of the world, there must be a substance in the narrower sense of individual substance such as mind or matter. However, it has here been shown that the only explanation required to make sense of the world is that there is a world; i.e., that there is being. In fact, it is beginning and continues in this narrative to emerge that the measure of being is beingand not something else or more particularand that this makes infinitely more sense than either substance or abandonment of the comfort for the insecurity of relativist thought Explanation from the void terminates at the void. The resulting metaphysics is not a substance XE "Substance"  theory of any kind (whether material or mental like or in the form of facts or propositions) but is not a relativist philosophy. It is non-relativist, i.e. it provides a foundation although not a determinist one; the error in thinking that non-relativist explanation requires substance is the thought world must come deterministically from some substance If a determinist foundation is not possible it cannot be truly desirable. Conversely, if anabsolutelyindeterministic foundation is necessary it cannot be other than desirable The metaphysics of immanence is ultimate in depth XE "Depth" : as the entire manifest universe in all its phases comes from and goes to the void state, explanation of the universe has foundation in the voidi.e. in being itselfwithout need for further regress or foundation. It has been seen that the metaphysics is also ultimate in breadth: the variety of being is harbored in its systemas cannot be the case for mind and matter in their dedicated senses. If the metaphysics were not ultimate in either depth or breadth, it could not be ultimate with regard to the other While the metaphysics of immanence is ultimate in depth XE "Depth"  in that it provides a non-relativist foundation in the void, the equivalence any two states of being, noted above, shows that the metaphysics is also ultimately apparentshallow, trivial and transparentin that any state of being including the present state provide a non-relativist foundation As noted earlier, the power XE "Power"  of the metaphysics may be seen as lying in its immediacy, shallowness and triviality Substancecontinuedmind and matter. Yet another appeal to substance XE "Substance"  in the form of dualism had been the absolute separation of mind and matter. Regardless of the philosophical, theological and scientific motivations for this separation, it should be clear by now that as distinct substances mind and matter could never interact and as absolute but dedicated, e.g. within this cosmos, even if indeterministic, are failed explanatory experiments Later, it will be seen that if mind and matter are released from their local and historical moorings, they may be realized as nothing but other words for being On account of the pre-judicial character of the ideas of mind and matter it would be confusing to substitute them for being This opens up the resolution, in Mind XE "Mind"  and in Human being XE "Human Being" , by what is essentially the theory of formation from the void, i.e. from absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , of the mind-matter XE "Mind:Mind-matter problem"  paradox XE "Paradox"  and to an understanding of the nature of mind and its grounding and many aspects thereof Given concepts of mind and of matter that are not other terms for being, if it is specified that mind and matter are distinct substances, there can be no causation XE "Causation"  from one to the other, no origin of one in the other On the condition that they are substantially distinct, at least one of mind and matter cannot be a substance XE "Substance"  Regarding matter as the fundamental element of this cosmos (i.e. as generalized to include energy and the other elements of theoretical physics,) matter can be a local and effective substance XE "Substance"  but not a true substance Mind XE "Mind"  and matter are not substances. I.e. if they are regarded in their common senses and as substantial in nature, neither can function as a metaphysical or universal substance XE "Substance"  Anthropomorphism and cosmomorphism. An anthropomorphic view sees being as having human nature. In an anthropocentric view, human being isat thethe center of the universe. A modern sentiment fostered by four centuries of science XE "Science"  and by liberalism is to de-anthropomorphize thought about non-human being e.g. other entities and the universe as a whole However, anthropomorphism is difficult to escape. Even when explicitly shed, it may remain in the weak form of cosmomorphismmodeling the universe on the local cosmological system XE "Cosmology:Local"  e.g. taking the laws of physics to be the laws or at least a blueprint for the laws of the entire universe Cosmomorphism is the building into a metaphysics or world picture the characteristics of this cosmos or, perhaps, these cosmological systems. Cosmomorphism is shed when only the most fundamental characteristic is retainede.g., that there is being, that there is one universe Cosmomorphism is difficult to escape. However, its retentionmythic, scientific or philosophical-metaphysicalis infinitely restrictive of vision Upon positively shedding all shreds of cosmomorphism, a vast universe of possibility immediately appears The result is a metaphysics of infinite and ultimate depth XE "Depth"  and breadth A guiding principle for the metaphysician is to obtain conceptual distance from the immediate world without relinquishing relations to it, without relinquishing intent to return to the immediate. The immediate is essential as is home; and is useful for its suggestive power XE "Power" , inspiration XE "Inspiration"  and as test. The principle is to develop a perspective XE "Perspective"  in which the immediate and the remote, the frank and the occult are not distinguished. It is an anti-perspective This guiding principle opens up a path to an adequate and proper conceptual relation to (understanding, knowledge of) the entire universe As will be seen in Mind XE "Mind" , Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  and Human World, the principle is also available to the study of particular aspects of the immediate world. It is helpful, for example, in the study ofhumanmind. First, in recognizing the conceptual nature of mental categories and therefore seeing that neuroanatomy and neurophysiology are at most half of the picture that is sought. Second, in the recognition that perception, thought, emotion XE "Emotion" , intuition and so on are conceptual and therefore not given as immediately experienced or conceived a play is allowed that permits movement toward a proper understanding and foundation of these categories and their relations For an inhabitant of this cosmological system, knowledge of the entire universe must be of a general or abstract character. However, such knowledge is intensely and perhaps surprisingly illuminating of human knowledge and, particularly, knowledge of the immediate world If the metaphysics of immanence is seen as remote, its implications are immediateand momentous It is clearly seen in the metaphysics and later in Objects XE "Object" , especially in the theory of identity, human beingevery human individualstands at the center of being. This, however, is not the exclusive caseall entities and creatures stand at center. It is then perhaps more than a value judgment to think that human being stands neither above nor below the other forms of life XE "Life" . What may be lost in thinking of human being as specialwhich may be seen as based in insecurity fostered by a false view of beingis gained in identity: in being centered among the elements of being Home is not a fixed place. This stands in addition to and not in opposition to the idea of a familiar and loved home. It suggests the possibility of feeling XE "Feeling"  accepted everywhere The idea that humananimalbeing is a lonely accident at the edge of an vast and alien cosmos in which humananimalbeing has no significance is not a fact. It is a feeling XE "Feeling"  or emotion XE "Emotion"  that may become attached to some contingent XE "Contingent"  information It may be undoubtedly true that any individual may be normally subject to suffering and alienation. It is a mistakeeven if difficult to avoidto elevate the normal to the universal and the necessary just as it is a mistake to think that the normal is without meaning or significance To suppress what is normal and to think that the universal will inevitably and routinely alleviate the normal condition are, of course, also mistaken ideas. However, it is most normal, even if rare and difficult, to seek, and to occasionally achieve a medium between these extremes; and it is also normal, even if rarer, to occasionally transcend the normal in its immediate sense Form XE "Form"  and the nature of Form. Since all manifest being may be regarded as coming from the void, the Forms of being aremay be regarded asimmanent in being Form XE "Form"  may be regarded as coming out of the void All structure may be regarded as that of Form XE "Form"  Form XE "Form"  is immanent in being i.e. it is of being rather than imposed on being Some Forms are more durable than others The distinction between the Forms of lesser and greater durability is not one of kind Practically, the Forms of lesser durability may be called transients and those of greater durability may be called, simply, Forms Actual XE "Modality:Actuality"  Forms are dynamic A Form XE "Form"  of infinite durationa static Formis not a realized Form and is not capable of decay or annihilation XE "Annihilation"  or of interaction. I.e. static Forms have no originscannot come into beingand if one were to have being it would have no un-becoming or end. A static Form has no significance. The existence XE "Existence"  and non-existence of static Forms are without distinction The existence XE "Existence"  of a static Form XE "Form"  capable of interactiondynamicswould be characterized by inherent contradiction and would also constitute a Law of the void. The being of a static form is logically impossible. The existence of a such static Form would be a violation of any Logic XE "Logic"  immanent in beingthis statement anticipates but is not used at all to found the concept of Logic of the present narrative All Forms are dynamic. There are, as has been seen, no static forms. Forms have origins and ends Mechanisms are discussed below, in this chapter, and are considered further in Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  Also see the later discussions of sentience XE "Mind:Sentience"  and sentient form and of logos and logic XE "Logic"  Symmetry. Platonic aspects of the character of Form XE "Form" . The condition of durability may also be called stability XE "Stability"  and the characteristic of stable formsthe one that makes them stablemay be called Symmetry. From modern theoretical physics, it would appear that Symmetric includes but is not limited to geometric symmetry XE "Symmetry"  and from now on, the single term, symmetry, will be used. Because there are no eternally durable forms, there are no absolutely stable and perfectly symmetric forms. The durable forms are relatively stable and near symmetric An absolutely stable or perfectly symmetric form would be staticand have neither beginning norwere it to beend Since all structure is Form XE "Form"  and since there are no absolute substances, the view of being that emerges has Platonic characteristics It has been noted that Form XE "Form"  is immanent in being. Form is not imposed. Nor is the immanence that of a foreign kind. Form is of being, of entities as much as is being-hood The idea of Form XE "Form"  as foreign or imposed has probable origin in that Form is experienced as form, i.e. as perceived and therefore ascribed the vague status of an object residing in mental space XE "Time and space:Space"  or conceptual space but not in actual space (There may be a conceptual space XE "Time and space:Space"  but such a space would be a domain resident in actual space) Perfectionsymmetry XE "Symmetry" of form is never attained, is logically impossible and is therefore not desirable It cannot be desirable The metaphysics of immanence is a metaphysics in which the structure in the world has characteristics of Form XE "Form"  rather than substance XE "Substance"  However, there is no separate Platonic world XE "Platonism:There is no Platonic world"  or universe. All actual worlds are in the one universe. Forms reside in this worldin the one universe On power XE "Power" . At the outset of the discussion of being, a promise was made to connect to the concept of powerthe ability to have an effect. The fundamental principle shows that being must have power, i.e., effect. Knowability is a form of power. Must being be knowable? In the common meaning of knowledge, the answer is no. However there is a necessary and consistent extension of knowledge to the root, just as and because mind and experience extend to the root, which (1) shows that being must be knowable and (2) stands as a reminder that the special statusan immateriality, a not of this worldlinessthat is often assigned to mental content is mistaken Conclusions from the existence XE "Existence"  of domains and their complements The idea of domains has been used occasionally above but it is useful to gather some specific conclusions from the existence XE "Existence"  of domains and complements together in order to benefit from systematic use The idea of creation and of a creator. If a creator is external to what is created, the universe can have no creator. One part of the universe may create another part. That is logically possible. However, origins in terms of a normal incremental mechanism XE "Mechanism"  of random variation and selection of relatively stable stateselaborated below and in Cosmology XE "Cosmology" may be far more likely In-formation. The form of one cosmological system may be informed by that of another or of the background universe. It is perhaps typical that complexity and intelligence are self-formed while formation from the outside occurs for at most initial conditions. This is because, with exceptions, a formative system must require a much greater complexity that a formed onecausal formation is far more complex than spontaneous origin in terms of a normal mechanism XE "Theory of Mechanisms of Essential Change:Normal mechanism"  The abstract idea of God XE "God" . As an explanation of origin form, omnipotenceGodis seriously deficient. The idea of explanation requires explanation of to be of the complex in terms of the simple and the evident. However, omnipotence is infinitely more complex and far less apparent than the manifest world. Which is not to say that there is no external effect in the formation of, e.g., a cosmological system but that the likelihood of an external cause XE "Causation:Cause"  being the entire causethat origins should be entirely causalis extremely unlikely. Arguments regarding external formation and its extent should take place on a case by case basis In the sense of cause XE "Causation:Cause"  as determining, the void is not and cannot be a causal creator of manifest being. Although the manifest universe may be seen as coming out of the void, it is a stretch of meaning to say that the void created the manifest universe However, the following are true. Given the universe in a void state, the universe will enter a manifest state; and, a manifest state is followed by the void. From some visitations to the void state, myriad cosmological systems will emerge before the next void state Whether the void may be regarded as a causal agent depends on the meaning of causation XE "Causation" . There is a project to investigate the meanings of cause XE "Causation:Cause"  according to which the void may be said to cause manifestation and according to which one domain may be said to cause or create another Prospect. Although the depth XE "Depth"  and power XE "Power"  of the metaphysics of immanence has become clear, what is presented so far is a beginning. The developments so far have clear metaphysical content and significance. The concern that certain objects have been shown to exist but the question of knowledge of the objectsbeyond existence XE "Existence" has not been addressed is taken up in Objects XE "Object" . Further developments continue below. The concept of the normal addresses the apparent violence done to common sense and science XE "Science"  by the metaphysics. Here and in subsequent chaptersespecially Mind XE "Mind" , Logic XE "Logic"  and Meaning XE "Meaning" , Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  and the chapters of Human Worldthere that elaborates the interaction of the metaphysics and various topics from the particular to a level of generality or abstraction that is close to that of the metaphysics itself. The use of the developments of Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  and Human World in the transformation XE "Transformation"  of being is the subject of thesecondpart of the narrative labeled Journey XE "Journey"  Development of the concept of the normal and its relation to the probable It has been seen that the metaphysics of immanence does apparent violence to common sense and to science XE "Science"  and philosophy as usually understood to reveal the nature of the universe. Whereas common sense suggests that the given forms, stabilities and facts of this world define broad features of the universe, the metaphysics shows an infinitely greater variety of fact and form and an underlying universe of stabilities amid transience. Where science reveals broad features of this cosmological system and its laws and the broad features of the story XE "Fiction:Story"  of life XE "Life"  on this earth, the metaphysics reveals these as but an infinitesimal element of being. Where it is almost invariably thought that a non-relativist metaphysics must be based in a substance XE "Substance"  at some finite depth XE "Depth" , the metaphysic of immanence is non-relativist but requires and can have no substance Since the metaphysics of immanence can be seen as a foundation in absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , the question of the possibility of structure arises There is a trivial response to the violence of common sense and the possibility of structure. It is that what is actual is not only possible but must be necessary. A less trivial response is to appeal to the fundamental principleevery consistent state must be realized and further, every actual state must be consistent The forms of cosmological systemssuch as this onethat are very special in relation to the necessary infinity of form in the universe are labeled normal What is normal is necessaryno explanation of the normal is necessary Regarding formation from the void as origin, the fundamental principle shows that formation may occur in a single step, a few steps, or gradually and incrementally in a process in which every stepmost stepsare incremental variations from one relatively stable state to another. It is reasonable to expect that incremental origins are far more likely than large step origins. Incremental origins by indeterministic variation from relatively stable to relatively stable state may be labeled a normal mechanism XE "Theory of Mechanisms of Essential Change:Normal mechanism"  and the corresponding explanation a normal explanation While normal mechanism XE "Theory of Mechanisms of Essential Change:Normal mechanism" s usually prevail, it is necessary that there shall be situations in which the likely mechanism XE "Mechanism"  does not fit the normal mold as described above What constitutes normal behavior is not of one mold The standard concepts of the typical objects of this cosmos may be labeled normal concepts The metaphysics of normal objects It is proper to talk about normal objects since the conclusions, even for normal objects, here, are necessary. While the metaphysics of immanence determines that there shall benormalcorrespondences between normal concepts and normal objects, it does not follow from the metaphysics that the normal concepts of this world correspond to normal and external objects The generic explanation of the relation between normal concepts and objects is that a lock between a normal concept and a normal external object is far more likely than a free floating concept, that lock does not occur in every instance of the normal concept Details of the explanation are deferred to Objects XE "Object"  Conclusions from and about specific empirical forms. (a) Conclusions from and about the fact and form of experience or sentience XE "Mind:Sentience"  which includes experience of the fact of experience, experience of the external object, experience of self and otherincluding the idea of you as explicitly similar to I. (b) Conclusions from and about the form and existence XE "Existence"  of particular domains, especially this cosmological system General conclusions and observations. That the empirical forms are highly specific, detailed andapparentlyimmediate should not result in the deception that the necessary forms are not empirical and immediate. As an example, in talking of theentireuniverse the term universe could have a number of senses of which two are all being with reference to all its details and all being as a single entity XE "Entity"  without any reference to distinction or detail. While the former sense has non-empirical content, the latter is empirical and only empirical for all that is necessary to know that there is all being in the latter sense is that there is being which follows from the fact of experience The specific domains of empirical knowledge as being of this cosmological system are of intrinsic interest. The domains include large domains of human knowledgethe sciences including psychology XE "Psychology" , history XE "History" , significant portions of mathematics XE "Mathematics" , philosophy, and, even, religion XE "Faith:Religion"  Conclusions of and about the metaphysics from the empirical domains. Even if what is known empirically is regarded as hypothetical, it provides raw material for possible content and suggests methods and mechanisms. As an example of content, that the cosmos is conveniently described in terms of space XE "Time and space:Space"  and timespace-timeprovokes a fruitful analysis of space and time in terms of the metaphysics. As an example of mechanism XE "Mechanism" , the idea of variation and selection from evolutionary biology is ever suggestive. It is important to recognize, however, that the existence XE "Existence"  of content and mechanism is not taken as proof XE "Proof" ; questions of proofas they ariseare taken up independently of sources of ideas Conclusions from the metaphysics regarding empirical knowledge. Does the metaphysics found empirical knowledge by showing XE "Proof:Showing"  the existence XE "Existence"  of what seem to be external objects as actual external objects? Not quite. If the system of empirical knowledge is consistent, there must be corresponding external objects somewhere in the universe. That does not imply that a given concept is locked in to an actual external object; rather the locking is, perhaps, made more likelytalk of probability XE "Normal:Probability"  may require hypotheses about fine-grained structure. Philosophers have no agreement on what proofs show the existence of external objects, e.g. in the case of the problem of other minds, or whether those proofs are conclusive. The metaphysics makes the existence of external objects more probable via arguments just mentioned. One fine grained argument goes as follows. Any one can observe, It is hardly likely that I am the author of the universe as a figment of my mind. If I were the author of the universe as figment I would face all kinds of paradox XE "Paradox" . There would be figments called Germans who appear to know far more of the German language XE "Language"  than I even though I created them. A more conclusive proof XE "Proof"  might require the assumption of physical theoryatomism XE "Atomism" , the quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  theory and so on. Perhaps in the final analysis we would end up admitting that even physical hypotheses have no certain purchase. It might then follow that a purely rational proofa metaphysical or philosophical proofof the existence of the non-necessary external objects is impossible; this in fact appears to be the case since the existence of the solipsist appears to be logically possible. This iswould begood to know. If the metaphysics is unable to provide proof of lock-in external merely empiricalnot necessaryobjects, it assists in analysis of the status of the metaphysical problem. One way it does that is to provide a framework for assessing the possible options regarding the existence of objects and to suggest probabilities to associate with the options The metaphysics shows that human empirical knowledge of the world is an infinitesimal fraction of the actual variety. While the empirical knowledge has obvious significance, one significance, then, that it does not have is the definition XE "Definition"  of the universe in extent, duration and variety. Empirical knowledge is as deficient as corrupt religions in providing insight into the existence XE "Existence"  or non-existence of a spiritual XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  world. The metaphysics shows, first, that the term spiritual is rather vague and that the proper distinction is that of the actual / possible and the normal: what might be termed spiritual lies, roughly, in the domain of the actual outside the normal. A more practical example is the insight provided by the metaphysics into space XE "Time and space:Space" -time-matter of this cosmological system by locating it in a larger context XE "Context"  of space-time-matter possibilities in the context of a universe that must go through phases of being the void. This analysis is taken up in Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  The interaction of metaphysics of immanence and standard domains of empirical knowledge is immensely fruitful Conclusions from the fact and form of experience. That there is experience of an external world does not imply the existence XE "Existence"  of an external world. From the fundamental principle there may be domains or phases of the universe that are characterized by a single center of experience without an external object. What may be concluded from the experience of an external world is that the existence of the external world is immensely likely. It is conceivable that there are fine structures that allow a single center of experience to create the rich experiential variety of a human individual. However, in terms of most fine structures, including those that conform to human experience, it appears to be immensely unlikely that a single human mind could reconstruct the immense variety of experience Some thoughts on the form of sentience XE "Mind:Sentience"  follow Sentience may be seen as a relation among forms. This sets up the possibility of error, paradox XE "Paradox" , and correction Alternately, sentience XE "Mind:Sentience"  may be seen as a form that includes the related forms and their relation. These forms are Forms as Forms and though they may be forms of experience, they may be revealed only imprecisely in experience Excepting paradox XE "Paradox" , all forms have the possibility of sentience XE "Mind:Sentience" this has been seen in an earlier discussion of mind However, significant forms of experience may require sufficient durability for the appropriate elaboration of form Some details of a logic XE "Logic"  of the nature of the field of experience now follow Sentience may be regarded as a field of sentience XE "Mind:Sentience"  or as a field of bodies with experience There is no logical difference between these depictions The sentient-field and body-experience field descriptions of organisms in the world are merely different terminologies In some phases of the universe, a single sentient form is possible, therefore actual Therefore, any argument against solipsism must be practical or contingent XE "Contingent" , i.e. in such and such a kind of system of beings e.g. durable evolved, solipsism would be impoverished or impossible In this phase, a single sentient form is logically possible but, from complexity, practically so improbable that there should not be reasonable doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  that this cosmos (world) is populated as in the multiple centers of experience form of experience and intuition, i.e., by individuals. There may be fine structurese.g. some forms of atomism XE "Atomism" under which it is impossible that a cosmos should be a solipsist Except for the eternal solipsist, solipsism, i.e. occasional solipsism of the universe or a domain of the universe, is possible and necessary on account of the Theory XE "Theory"  of being Logically, universe may be seen as a solipsist. However, since it enters a phase of being the void it would not be an eternal solipsist even though the universe it is eternalit is the manifest universe that is not eternal Given the structure of this world, the world of human experience is far richer than it could be if the individual were a solipsist The discussions in Mind XE "Mind" , Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  and Human World will elaborate conclusions from the form of experience including the experience of Identity XE "Identity"  regarding which it will be seen that the experience of an isolated identity is an approximation to a fuller experience of Identity Conclusions from the form and existence XE "Existence"  of this cosmological system. The behavior of this cosmological system is subject to the fundamental principle and therefore from any state of the system any state of the universe is accessible The normal behavior of this cosmological system, however, includes deterministic-like and causal behavior. It also includes and non-causal behavior as in the quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  description at microscopic levels that often but not invariably averages out as causal or near causal behavior at macroscopic levels and which permits a number of otherwise inexplicable macroscopic behaviors. Thevariation and selectionmechanism XE "Mechanism"  of evolution is a normal mechanism XE "Theory of Mechanisms of Essential Change:Normal mechanism"  forexplanation ofevolution and, more generally, of becoming; this mechanism may be framework for other, more specific, mechanisms. The experience of space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time in this cosmological system, including its expression in the theory of gravitationEinstein XE "Einstein, Albert" s general relativityare among the normal behaviors of this cosmos The metaphysics of immanence must permit the observed behavior of this cosmos Together withthe puremetaphysics of immanence, the forms of this cosmological system will suggest and permit numerous conclusions of General Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  and possibilities for local, physical or normal cosmologies The earlier discussions of Form XE "Form" , General Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  and Mind XE "Mind"  and Matter XE "Matter"  are relevant to the Local or Physical Cosmology and other local cosmologies The treatment of the issues of empirical domains of knowledge is taken up in subsequent chapters, especially Mind XE "Mind"  and Cosmology XE "Cosmology" . The question of the foundation of such knowledge is further addressed in Objects XE "Object" . Objects further contributes to the discussion via a careful analysis of the variety of objects and, especially, kinds of objects such as concrete or particular objects and abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s such as number, morals, and logic XE "Logic"  as an object. The metaphysics of immanence is instrumental in the definitive treatment of abstract objects which shows them to not be as different from concrete objects as has traditionally been thought Objections and counterarguments. These arise in reflecting on the development of the metaphysics Some objections to proof XE "Proof"  of the existence XE "Existence"  of the void have been considered earlier It may be objected that the void is an event and not a state. It remains the case that in the void, the universe passes through a state in which there is no Form XE "Form" , Pattern XE "Pattern"  or Law Some foci for general objections. (1) What may appear to be the use of mere conceptse.g. void, universe and domainto demonstrate actual or real consequences. This objection arises regarding the proof XE "Proof"  of the fundamental principle of the metaphysics of immanence. The objection is, of course, serious, first, in its nature and second and most importantly in that, if valid, it puts the foundation of the metaphysics of immanenceits fundamental principlein question. I.e. the objection is not a disproof of the fundamental principle but is a proof that the given proof lacks validity. (2) Quantum theory implies that the absence of thingsthe ground state of the local cosmosis be the quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  vacuum which is far from the absence of being but is a seat of enormous of energy, a place of continuous creation and destruction of particle pairs. (3) The violation of common sense in the ideas of something from nothing and the real XE "Real, the" ization of all consistent systems of description and, in physics, possible violations of the principle of conservation of energy. Responses to the objections follow (1) The intensely empirical character of theconcepts ofuniverse, void and so on has been discussed at length. It is the fact that these necessary objects are so close to seeing that, in their immediacy, their empirical character may escape notice. These objects are not mere concepts. There are further objections regarding the idea of all being. One is that, as a concept, the idea may entail self-reference. There may be self-reference in that an individual referring to all being refers also to him or herself. However, in viewing all being as an entity XE "Entity"  but not with regard toallits details there is no necessary self-reference. In Logic XE "Logic"  it will be seen that it is not self-reference per se that results in paradox XE "Paradox" . Another problem may be thought to arise in that all being also includes concepts. In the discussion of abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s, it will be seen that concepts are objects and that the concept of the concept is not a new category. A further objection to or problem with the idea of all being is the possibility of infinitely many decompositions of it into possible objects. However, although this possibility exists, it is no more explicit in reference to all being than is the same possibility for any object. The arbitrariness of decomposition is an interesting idea that is discussed elsewhere in the narrative. (2) The quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  vacuum is the seat of patterns of behavior that are laws. The void contains no law and is therefore below the quantum vacuum in simplicity and fundamental character. The void generates the quantum laws of thisourcosmological system as well as the laws and entities of all cosmological systems. (3) Common sense and intuitionat least for some personsis indeed violated; there is nothing, it may appear, in common day-to-day life XE "Life"  that suggests the origin of a cosmos out of a void. However, common sense, experience, and intuition are situated in the everyday world. It may be said of such intuition that its extrapolation to the universe is an extrapolation of a mere or contingent XE "Contingent"  empirical factor absence of factto the form of intuition and, more, to the form of the necessary. Self-aware empirical common sense is silent on such issues andshould it desire to knowwill seek to follow the analysis. It appears to be a fact of human variety that some individuals are bound to their experience more than others. However, as will be seen in Human being XE "Human Being" , both binding and freedom are important to being humanand to think that freedom is essentially and only destructive or essentially and only creative are essentialist over-reactions to the imperfections and possibilities of freedom. It is interesting that the integration XE "Integration"  of intuition and analysis is to algebraic thought where the partial replacement of intuition by analytic expression allows the analysis of forms not amenable to intuition Attention now turns to the issue of violation of the principle of conservation of energy. It is an immediate consequence of the fundamental principle that, regarding the entire universe, conservation of energy does notcannotobtain and thatnearconservation laws are perhaps features of relatively stable worlds. However, since, in terms of physical theory, energies can be positive as well ase.g. gravitational field energynegative, spontaneous creation of a universe from nothing need not violate the physical principle of conservation of energy An objection regarding meaning. It is in the meaning of existence XE "Existence"  that in having this discussion or even in having an illusion of a discussion, there is existencesomething like that is said above. However, it might be replied, No, existence does not necessarily have that kind of meaning at all. Existence has many meanings of which your meaning is but one. To assert that your meaning is the only meaning is to assert a privilege that you do not have and may not claim. The concern is a general one regarding meaning. The objection has semantic andperhaps implicitpolitical dimensions. The semantic dimension includes that a word such as existence may well have a variety of meanings or shades of meaning. Although they employ the same sign, existence, they correspond to distinct concepts or shades of concept. Matters could be kept in order by using different signs but that might be confusing in other ways. A more serious charge might be that the selected meaning of existence is not tenable. However, as has been seen some aspect of meaning is and must be beyond analysis and for this it suffices in the beginning to identify what aspects of meaning are most immediate and the subsequent process is experimental rather than primarily analytic. The political dimension of meaning is that, in the case of a significant idea, there may be conflict regarding appropriation of the sign used to designate the concept. It is especially appealing to users of a tradition to deploy a received meaning (that it is received is not a measure of validity or invalidity.) And it is especially appealing to othersthe critic, the iconoclast, the deconstructionist, the thinker who would be democratic with regard to ideasto make negative assertions about received meaning. Naturally, the semantic and the political are not altogether independent for an aspect of appropriation may be to make the implicit claim that other meanings have no semantic validity. However, it is necessary to show that such meanings have no such validity and not merely to make the claim or to suggest that the meanings in question have been used to negative ends. If one is not a pragmatist, the ends argument may suggest that the negative ends meaning not be used but not that it is invalid and, regarding the pragmatic argument, there is a valid question of what kinds of end are to be chosen and when The position in this narrative has been the one asserted abovethat a term or word may have a variety of meanings, that in principle the variety of meanings correspond to a variety of symbols, that each meaning could be assigned a distinct word e.g. existence1, existence2 and so on but, provided the distinctions are kept in mind, this is not necessary. The thrust of the narrative has included that the chosen meanings have evolved or been selected to enable development of the ultimate metaphysics and its consequences. If a critic argues that his or her meaning is the valid one they have not understood what has just been said about one word many symbols. If they insist on using their, different, meaning, that would not be invalid, but the ensuing discussion would not be about the content of this narrative; rather it would be to engage in another discourse that is perhaps at most tangential to the present one. If the critic insists on some other meaning and insists that the meanings in this narrative are but one of many then it would be necessary to employ the seeming artifice of using distinct words for the distinct symbols. It is amusing that if distinct words had not been employed there might be no argument but when the same word is accidentally used for distinct meanings there may follow what appears to be a debate about meaning but is of the form the use of z to mean Z is invalid because x actually means X. It seems reasonable, therefore, to assert that the valid criticisms of the arguments of the narrative would deploy the meanings of the narrative and show that either the meanings or the arguments are lacking in substance XE "Substance" . In doing so the critic would face the following concern. In a critique of the meaning of one of the terms, the meanings of other terms would come into question. Therefore, the criticism would employ the entire system of meaning of the narrative. In the process of criticism or discussion, certain terms might arise that are external to the system of the narrative and these terms might be either of the same kind or level as those of system or otherwise e.g. from a common but diffuse vocabulary or, perhaps, from the vocabulary of criticism. Discussion of the meanings of these extra-system terms might also arise. How might this discussion be approached? One possibility is that meaning is open ended and that there is no final settling of such matters even though there may be occasions of general agreement. Another possibility is that the meanings of the extra-system terms may be given definite meaning in terms of some systemperhaps the metaphysical system of the narrative. Would that be valid? If only the pure elements of the metaphysics were used, it would appear that this approach to the meaning of the extra-system terms is based in Logic XE "Logic" . Even though it has been shown that the metaphysics is ultimate in depth XE "Depth"  and breadth, it is not reasonable to anticipate that all critical vocabulary could be brought within the system or shown to lack validity even if this should have been done for all critical vocabulary so far. Therefore, there may be a confidence in the system of the narrative. Therefore, also, there is openness to discussion. Although reason is a source of confidence, openness is and should be another. If the metaphysics is to survive it must be open for, even if ultimate, its strength cannot be in isolation or dogmatic insistence. The power XE "Power"  of the concept of being is that it allows both known and unknown and it allows reference to both known and unknown to be simply empirical or, in the admission of details of what is beyond the empirical, to be non-empirical in that there are concepts that await objects on which to lock but not in that those concepts have no objects. In its origin, a basic purpose of the system lay in the service of life XE "Life"  and this, as well, is a fundamental aspect of openness The metaphysical developments show quibbles about sign-associatione.g. of existence XE "Existence" to be trivial in relation to the illumination and deployment of a core idea in relation to existence. If it is argued that the metaphysics implicitly values the ultimate over the immediate, the reply is that the ultimate / immediate distinction is not intrinsic to the metaphysicswhat is ultimate in depth XE "Depth"  is also ultimate in immediacy, triviality and shallowness and the ultimate character derives from the trivial character. There is a practical ultimate / immediate distinction that is distinct from the conceptual and regarding the practical distinction the metaphysics makes no a priori distinction of value and allows it to emerge as a result of experience and analysis Some general comments on criticism and objection. That the developmentsearchfor objections and their refutationor otherwisemust be an aspect of any method or approach. Criticism is enhanced by alternative formulation. The development of the conclusions of the theory of being is a source of objections The following generic approaches to refutation or criticism of objections occur. Analysis of the meaning and motive of the objectionmotive is significant at least in so far as it reveals implicit meaning. Repeated analysis and improvement of theory of being and its concepts e.g. the fundamental principle defines rather than merely employs logic XE "Logic"  as the result of reflection on the ideas, as a result of learning from the tradition of knowledge, and as a response to real or apparent paradoxes. Interpretation, especially via the concept of the normal and building a coherent picture as a response to absurdity. The particular and the idiosyncratic refutation are not ruled out. Analysis of the world-view, if any, implicit in the objections and observation that the shedding of invalid or merely local world-views is and must be liberating Faith XE "Faith"  and affirmation Faith XE "Faith"  has a variety of meanings and uses. One family of use is the one in religious faith. The use introduced here is more akin to the one in animal faith which is the state of living in an immediate environment as part of the environment and without doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  or need for doubt and without certainty or need for certainty. Flow of environment and organism are not at odds; they are the same flowwhich is not to say that the organism does not feel pain or pleasure, fear or confidence but, perhaps, that there is no labeling of such feelings XE "Feeling"  or need to label them. In the present meaning, however, the organism envisaged has the ability to label and to doubt and to want and, perhaps, to attain security or, at least, a feeling of security. The organism has gone through these activities. In a search for security, the organism is part of a tradition that has valued doubt and reason but, from reason itself, has come up against limits to reason. Since the organism and the tradition came to value doubt, the limits to reason may have left the organism with doubt but not confidence. This however, was not the original state of animal grace. The organism wishes to return to such a state but without rejecting either doubt or reason or the places for doubt and reason. These thoughts motivate the meaning of faith that is about to be suggested Although the meaning of faith that is now suggested has distinctions from the meaning in religious faith it is not suggested that all religious faith is of the dogmatic kind that would set it apart from animal faith or the present meaning that is an integration XE "Integration"  of animal faith and the human freedom of reason and meaningwhich freedom is introduced and discussed in some detail in Human being XE "Human Being"  Faith XE "Faith"  is that attitude, routine or inspired, which is most productive of action in the face of doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" of quality of being in the face of fear, of ends in the face of destruction This faith is productive of equanimity of being without foundation in something else Faith XE "Faith"  is not refutation of analysis and reasonit is affirmation in the face of uncertainty In faith there is affirmation of beingover mere system, over knowledge, over means and instruments In faith there is life XE "Life"  in relation to the worldlife of the worldrather than life apart, rather than life through knowledge, means, and instruments The attitude of faith is not fixed but is adaptable and adapts to circumstance Faith XE "Faith"  does not reject doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  but does not dwell in doubt Faith XE "Faith"  does not reject reason but does not ever dwell in reason Faith XE "Faith"  is not identical to but is not other than reason Reason is an occasional element in faith but is not definitive of faith However, rejection of reason would also be a rejection of faith At least on account of limits to reason, reason cannot be all of faith Faith XE "Faith"  is an intrinsic condition ofsentientform There is an enhanced meaning that includes intuition and feeling XE "Feeling"  in which reason approaches faith Faith XE "Faith"  is not belief Adherence to what is merely absurd or merely given on authority is not what is here meant by faith The word merely is significant. What rings of the absurd may not in fact be absurd. Authority may, on occasion, be respected for its seen or experienced authentic power XE "Power"  in the world rather accepted as an act of submission in the face of force over the world or punishment The significance of this meaning of faith is further developed immediately below and subsequently in Faith XE "Faith"  The method or approach Method is any approach, systematic or ad hoc, based in the nature of being and patterns of thought and transformation XE "Transformation"  that are conducive to realistic thought and effective transformation. Method may be revisable in practice The method starts the description of forms of experience that require, for their existence XE "Existence" , corresponding general or universal forms of beingbeing itself, all being and so on. This aspect of the method has an affinity with what Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel"  labeled the transcendental XE "Transcendental"  analytic. In its second aspect, the method is that of formal deduction XE "Deduction"  of the results of general metaphysics which includes the theory of substance XE "Substance"  and determinism XE "Determinism" , logic XE "Logic" , and general cosmology XE "Cosmology:General"  The necessary objects have an entirely empirical character. To say that something is entirely empirical is not to say that it is not without conceptual content. Things known must have conceptual content whether empirical or not. An object is known but not empirical when the existence XE "Existence"  is demonstrated by some means, e.g. logical necessity, but the object has notyetbeen located in perception The existence XE "Existence"  of the necessary objects follows from the corresponding forms of experience which would not exist without the existence of the corresponding necessary objects. The one exception to this schema of demonstration is the void whose existence is a logical inference from the necessary empirical concept of domain. Although it has not been argued so before and it is not argued now, it could, perhaps, be argued that the void is empirical in the notion of that which cannot enter perceptionof any organism in any phase or domain of the universe The theory of the void lies on the boundary between the universal forms and formal deductions and it is regarding the existence XE "Existence"  of the void that, in the discussion above, doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  has been entertained, refuted and reconsidered. There is temptation to suppress this doubt but it is not honesty that requires it to be recorded. Rather the power XE "Power"  of the theory and the range of vision that result would be poorly served by suppressing doubt. Whatever doubt remains stands as an invitation to grapple with it There is doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  even about the nature of the doubtis it necessary or is it perhaps some neurosis that forces the doubt on account of the magnitude of the vision that results from the existence XE "Existence"  of the void? Although it is not perfectly clear that faith is necessary to allay doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" , this is the point at which faith may enter. Although animal being may not experience faith since, in the absence of reason, there is no need to doubt, there is experience of warmth and fear. In the absence of reason there is no doubting fear. Thus life XE "Life"  is characterized by faith. It may be said that faith in the void is removed and is thus not animal faith. Recall, though, that among the objects that may be contemplated in reason, metaphysics is most immediate Even in the absence of insight, any eminence of epistemology XE "Knowledge:Epistemology"  may be seen as a loss of nerve in deference to an absolute reign of reasonthat necessarily even dethroned itself Perhaps, however, it is not taking reason far enough that is its downfall. Perhaps in the limit, reason, faith and intuition areoccasionallyone The foregoing aspects of method have been experienced as necessary and may be labeled the method of the metaphysics of immanence or, simply, the method The parallels and anti-parallels of the present idea and place of faith with religious faith are remarkable. Worldly knowledge is a source of power XE "Power"  but is impoverished in relation to the whole person and knowledge of being. Faith XE "Faith"  is not known to be certain but is rich where worldly knowledge is poor. Therefore, faith is not moreit is the world Here, however, parallels end. Religious faith is often regarded as dogma; here there is no dogma. Religion XE "Faith:Religion"  is often presented as against science XE "Science" ; metaphysics of immanence subsumes science. In the world view of dogmatic religion, whoever lacks faith in dogma may find meaning in the barren landscape of science where may be found solace in the lonely stance of truth XE "Truth" this thought resonates with the beliefs of so many persons of a scientisticscience as truth, whole truth and nothing but truthpersuasion. The faithful are asked to believe, e.g. in Christ, in what would with any other person seem absurd. Here there is no either / oreither metaphysics of immanence or science. Science is often but only presented as the truth. The absent either / or is not only with regard to truth but also action. The person can live under science and metaphysics can know fullness of being and worldly power XE "Power" and while the limits of the metaphysicsthe doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" are accepted are the limits of science and reason in a world once full of hope for reason but perhaps unable to find a way outexcept of hopein reason After developing the metaphysics, focus turns, in Objects XE "Object" , to the questions of what objects correspond to concepts and then, in Cosmology XE "Cosmology" , to study of the variety of being. Objects is largely an analysis of concepts in the light of the metaphysics. In CosmologyHuman World may be considered to be a chapter in cosmologythe approach is to study particular topics in light of the metaphysics. Here there is doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  concerning not only about precision XE "Precision"  but also about the validity of the concepts. Sustained reflection from the metaphysics as well as the particular topics may be seen to remove much of the doubts regarding validity of the concepts. For example in discussion the functions of mind, the reflections on substance XE "Substance"  and determinism XE "Determinism"  give clarification and foundation where there would otherwise be isolated fragments that, even when they have some explanatory power XE "Power" , lack coherence and any sense that they refer to something that is of the organism Thus the net method integrates the method of the metaphysics of immanence with disciplinary studies and, in this aspect, goes beyond the disciplines and is dependent on science XE "Science"  and at most partially founded by it It is important to note that such lines of thought also clarify science XE "Science"  as seen briefly above and taken up further in Logic XE "Logic"  The present method subsumes what is true in science XE "Science"  but is not founded by it. As being of more general application than what is usually meant by science, the method cannot be equated to it Two observations are importantand should be integrated with their further discussion below. First, method does not stand a priori over studyobjectbut is what method or approach that may have arisen along the way; therefore, approach is as good a term as method. Second, whereas method has a necessary character in the study of necessary objects, in the study of normal objects its character has a necessary since the normal resides within the necessary and a contingent XE "Contingent"  side since there are details to the normal that are not necessary Necessary XE "Modality:Necessity"  proof XE "Proof"  includes the following aspects: demonstration by proof, demonstration by recognition and naming of what is given, and demonstration by analysis of use or meaning. It has been seen incremental analysis of systems of concepts is not invariably an open loop. It may be seen that development e.g. analysis of method is not a priori given or separable from development e.g. analysis of objects and that method does not stand a priori over studyobjectbut is what method or approach may have arisen along the way; therefore approach is as good a term as method. As an example, Logic XE "Logic"  will be seen to be an object and this shows the essential braiding of Logic and object and that, where method is revealed as necessary so is object Contingent proof XE "Proof"  arises in contexts where knowledge is contingent XE "Contingent" , e.g. this cosmos and Human World where contingency from what is locally interesting but not universal in nature There is a distinction between method, discussed here, and principles of thought XE "Thought, principles of" , discussed in Ideas. Whereas method refers to methods of demonstration, principles of thought are practices that are conducive to discoveryof both content and method. The method may be seen as included in the principles Some detail. Necessary XE "Modality:Necessity"  and contextual proof XE "Proof" . Necessary proof begins from incontrovertible premisesespecially those implicit in the conditions or meaning of presencee.g. the premise of being e.g. the premise of this discussion or of experience. Perhaps incontrovertible is actually weak in relation to experience for being is in the meaning of experience and existence XE "Existence"  which are limit points of analysis. Necessary proof proceeds by simple instruments that can be seen inherent in conditions of existence / stable meaning but which also have analytic representation e.g. the propositional calculus which has analytic consistency XE "Consistency"  proof. Examples of necessary proof are found in the demonstrations regarding the necessary objectsexperience, being, universe, void, form and the normal objects. In Logic XE "Logic" , it will be seen that method of proof does not altogether rise above the contingent XE "Contingent" . In contextual proof, reference is made to some special context XE "Context"  so that premises or proof are generally though not invariably contingent. Proof is supplementedgiven fleshby interpretationwhich may be necessary andor contextual. Interpretation is often essential in that what is proved is that some state must obtain somewhere in the universe but it is interpretation that shows that it obtains in some specific situationand such interpretation may appeal to the established scientific disciplines. Demonstration has occasional use in interpretationsubject to consistency requirements, an interpretation must obtain in some situations. Examples of contextual proof are abound in Human World and are also found in demonstrations at the intersection of local or normal cosmology and pure metaphysics The status of the metaphysics so far Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  is the theory of being as being and harbors within it all specialized studies as instances. Pure metaphysics is that part of metaphysics that is absolutely demonstrable, i.e., by recognition, by analysis of meaning and proof XE "Proof" . General metaphysics outside its pure part may be labeled cosmology. However the distinction between cosmology and pure metaphysics is arbitrary and in their broad meanings, cosmology and metaphysics are identical The principles of pure metaphysics are those that establish it, i.e., they are the components of demonstration as defined above The metaphysics is systematic and empirical. The development of the metaphysics shows the possibility of a metaphysics that is systematic and empirical In talking of a metaphysics it is not implied that there are other systems of metaphysics. There may be other forms of metaphysics but, except perhaps for level of detail, would be identical to the present one. Therefore, there is, in principle, but one metaphysics Pure metaphysics includes its principles. The following are some results of the pure metaphysics pertinent to an assessment of the status of the metaphysics so far The existence XE "Existence"  of the necessary objects: experience and its forms; being itself, the universe which is all being and form and law and pattern XE "Pattern" all objects; difference, domain and complement; change and before, now and after; the void which is the absence of being and contains no objectespecially no form, no pattern and no law The existence XE "Existence"  and properties of the universe and the void suggest the name metaphysics of immanence The actual, the possible, and the necessary are identicalas noted above, the meaning of the necessary will be elaborated in Logic XE "Logic"  The fundamental principle of the metaphysics of immanence: every consistent conceptincluding pictures and descriptionsis realized as a state from every other state. Or, every state is realized. Stated in this form, this implies that since the description of the void state is consistent, it, too, is realized. The apparent violence that the fundamental principle does to common sense and science XE "Science"  as it is known is resolved below Although every concept has an object, it does not follow that every concept is locked in to an object, i.e., has what, in the literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , starting with Franz Brentano XE "Brentano, Franz" , has been called an intentional relationship to an object. In some cases, of course, the concept is what may be labeled a free conceptthe product of an organism with imagination and in some cases the concept is a dream or hallucination. The question of the object is whether there is anything ever that is an object that corresponds to a given concept. This is the question of the existence XE "Existence"  of the external world of which a special case is the philosophical dilemma of solipsism. Such questions are worthy of reflection, not because there is healthy doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  about the existence of an / the external world but because the reflections sharpen understanding of the nature of the worldof the nature of the relations between concepts and objects, and because the reflections may be the occasion to develop powerful tools of analysis. The answer given earlier and to be elaborated upon in Objects XE "Object"  is that, in some phases of the universe and, possibly in some domains of the present phase which is not necessarily this cosmological system, the existence of the solipsist is not logically consistentwithout assumptions or conditions regarding the structure or makeup of the phase or domain. The general conclusion is, however, that the solipsist case is immensely unlikely and, more particularly, given the fine grained structure, e.g. cellular, structure of a brain, the richness of individual experience is extremely unlikely to be the product of a solipsist imagination. Perhaps, though, Brahman XE "Brahman" , in which normal, i.e. non-solipsist, individuals participate, has the character of a single mind without an external world A resolution of what has been called the fundamental problem of metaphysicswhy there is being in a strong form in which it is seen that there must beoccasions of manifestbeing Except logical contradictions, there are no fictionsthe universe contains all mystery The void is ultimately simple. The simplicity of the void is conceptual rather than factual. No particular importance is attached to the number of voidswhich may be taken to be one or finitely or infinitely many Every element of beingincluding the universe in a manifest statemay be regarded as being attached to its own void. This attachment XE "Attachment"  makes the necessity of spontaneous annihilation XE "Annihilation"  and creation most obvious The universe is absolutely indeterministic and this is not only consistent with form and structure but makes them necessary The metaphysics itself requires the necessary existence XE "Existence"  of normal cosmologies in the universe of absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  This cosmos and its structure are logically necessarythis also follows from the identity of the actual, the possible and the necessary The problem of substance XE "Substance"  is also the problem of determinism XE "Determinism" . I.e., since substances are introduced to explain the complex in terms of the simple, substance explanation must be deterministic or else it would not be simple. Therefore, there are and can be no substance or substances as the ground of being From the fundamental principle it is a short step to see that the voidor any statemay be regarded as the ground of being. The corresponding explanation is not deterministic and is therefore not a substance XE "Substance"  theory. However, the fundamental principle does found a non-relativist philosophy without substance. This is extremely remarkable and surprising in view of the common view that a non-relativist metaphysics without substance is impossible The metaphysics of immanence is ultimate in breadth in that it encompasses the variety of being The metaphysics of immanence is ultimate in depth XE "Depth"  in groundingexplanation ofall being without substance XE "Substance"  or infinite regress, i.e., in providing a non-relativist metaphysics without substance In their common meaningse.g. in physics and the philosophy of mindmind and matter cannot be regarded as having a substance XE "Substance"  nature. Yet, as will be seen in Mind XE "Mind" , there are extended meaning in which mind or matter could, if indeterministic explanation were allowed to be part of substance explanation, be taken as substance; this, however, would be likely to result in confusion on account of the common meanings of mind and matter. Matter XE "Matter" , in its meaning from modern theoretical physics, could be taken to be an effective local substance but not a true substance The metaphysics of immanence sheds not only anthropomorphism and anthrocentrism but also cosmomorphism and cosmocentrism. However, in showing XE "Proof:Showing"  that any particular kind of being is not universal in its form, its potentiality for all form is revealedaccording to the fundamental principle and as will be elaborated and explained in the theory of identity. And, that a particular being is not the center of the universe is only a statement that all particular beings are equally at center or, equivalently, there is no place or being that deservesor should requirethe title of center of the universe. Whether this leads to feelings XE "Feeling"  of inconsequentiality or of significance is a function of ego-perspective XE "Perspective"  The metaphysics of immanence is a metaphysics of form. Form XE "Form"  is immanent in being. All forms are dynamic and have origins and ends. A static form would never manifest; however, if manifest, it would be eternal. What are typically seen as forms are the more durable, more stable and more symmetric forms. Although the metaphysics of immanence has Platonic characteristics, there is no separate Platonic world XE "Platonism:There is no Platonic world" . In a purely Platonic view, actual entities would be seen asimpurecopies of perfect forms. Here, the origin of the structure of manifest being is in the dynamic aspect of form and the symmetry XE "Symmetry"  of actual forms is a near symmetry or one that is near to the perfect symmetry of the so-called static forms that do not and cannot exist. Imperfection is a condition ofmanifestbeing Equivalent characterizations of the metaphysics of immanence. (1) The universe which is all being contains all Form XE "Form" , Pattern XE "Pattern"  and Law. (2) The void that is the absence of being exists and contains no Form, Pattern or Law, i.e., no Objects XE "Object" . (3) The universe is absolutely indeterministic; this means that there are no not-accessed states except the impossible or contradictory statesi.e., those states whose description involve contradiction. (4) The metaphysics achieves absolute non-cosmorphism, i.e., in their foundation, the metaphysics and cosmology eliminate all reference to the particular form of this or any cosmos. (5) Logic XE "Logic" , properly conceived as the theory of the possible or equivalently as the theory of the actual, or as the theory of descriptions, is the one law of the universeof all being The metaphysics sets up subsequent developments. Objects XE "Object"  considers the connection between concepts and objects; the metaphysics sets this up by demonstrating the existence XE "Existence"  of the objects, by demonstrating the necessary connection between concepts and their corresponding objects in some cases, and by suggesting the probable connection in many cases. That everyconsistentconcept must have some object is further instrumental in understanding abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s and in showing XE "Proof:Showing"  that, in contrast to received understanding, abstract and concrete object XE "Object:Concrete" s are distinguished bytheir currently most productivemode of study but are not distinct in kindall objects lie in the one universe. Logic XE "Logic"  is set up in the ideas of the identity of the actual, the possible and the necessary and in the fact that every consistent concept has an object. Meaning XE "Meaning"  is clarified through the same considerations and further in that since there can be no consistent sense whose object lies outside the universe, sense must be latent reference that may have intentional reference. The clarification of substance XE "Substance" , form, meaning and its extension, and the notion of depth XE "Depth"  are instrumental in developing the concept of Mind XE "Mind"  and, incidentally, that of matter. The concept of variety, the demonstration that the metaphysics implicitly contains all variety and all kinds and the fundamental principle of the metaphysics set up Cosmology XE "Cosmology" . The foregoing topics are a foundation for Human World In some of the topics, e.g. Logic XE "Logic" , the development is an elaboration of what is already implicit in the metaphysics. In others, e.g., Local or physical cosmology and Human World, the development is the result of interaction between the metaphysics and the specific topic; these developments are not only applications of the metaphysics to a topic but may also involve clarification and deepeningin some cases ultimateof the topic and illumination of the metaphysics Objects XE "Object"  In use of the same name for idea and entity XE "Entity"  and in lack of complete distinction between them, there is a confusion to the study of the idea of the object that has resolution in distinguishing concept and object. A potential confusion remains in that the same word may be used to refer to both concept and object. However, with a little care this confusion is eliminated. An object X existsis said to existif and only if, to the concept X, there corresponds an (the) object The problem of the object concerns the faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  of the correspondence between concept and object. The problemin addition to empirical concerns, the concept and the object appear to be categorially distinct and, further, every measure of faithfulness of the concept seems to be a refinement only of the concepttherefore, faithfulness appears to be a false ideal. Three exceptions to falseness of the ideal arise immediately. (1) From the metaphysics, faithfulness is given for certain objects such as the universe, domain and complement, the void and others derived from such by necessity. Such objectsconceptsare absolute in faithfulness and the question arises whether there are others. Generally, from the fundamental principle of metaphysics, every concept that neither harbors nor entails contradiction isand must berealized; the concern that remains is that though the object exists, its identification is not given. (2) Also from the metaphysics as well as adaptation, some objects (concepts) are practical or sufficiently faithful. Included here are scientific theories which will be shown in Logic XE "Logic"  to be practical with regard to the world or precise with regard to some limited but imprecisely defined domain. From the concept of form, even in the case of practical concepts, the concept of absolute object XE "Object:Absolute"  has meaningit is not implied that the form or object itself is definite or that the concept of it may be faithful. There is no simple logical limit to improvement of faithfulness but where it has no meaning it cannot be desirableand, regarding the variety of being this is seen as positive. Given factsregarding objects of perception / science XE "Science" , logical operation on such facts is possible and the universality and precision XE "Precision"  of such operations is taken up in Logic. (3) The formulation of the idea of knowledge in terms of concept and object is one in which concept and object are distinct but though this has domains of validity there are others when it has no significance. The preceding statement is an approximation in the following way. When there is concept and objectthis corresponds to the Kantian case. In Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" s thought, intuition conforms to reality. In this thinking, Kant was inspired by Euclidean Geometry and Newtonian Mechanics XE "Theories of physics:Newtonian mechanics"  whose immense success resulted in their being seen as absolutely trueEuclids geometry, with but occasional doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" , had reigned for about 2000 years and though the mechanics of Newton XE "Newton, Isaac"  had been formulated only a hundred years earlier, had brought to mechanics an order previously unknown in that field and comparable only to geometry. Given the intuition of time, space XE "Time and space:Space"  and mechanics, the expression of the intuition in symbolic terms and logical operations on the symbolic systems permitted formulation of a science of space, time and mechanics. Although it is not clear that Kant did this, it is possible to regard the symbolic capabilitywhich includes logical operations on symbolsas elements of intuition and then, the entire development of geometry and mechanics can be seen as being part of intuition. Kant, of course, did not know that, as physical theories, the geometry and mechanics of his era were to be overturned in the next one hundred and fifty years and to be replaced by better theories which, however, were not seen as final descriptions of reality but only as better approximations. It remains, however, that as approximation, human intuition conforms to a domain of the real XE "Real, the" . Thus Kantian intuition includes the second item above and, via its analyticity, includes the first item as well. In Human being XE "Human Being" , a system of categories will be presented. Of these, humor is seen to be an adaptation to the unexpected, to ignorance, to chaos. Humor includes the idea of, where impossible or otherwise undesirable, giving up any ideal of strict objectivity XE "Objectivity" and, in the extreme, Dionysian embrace of the world. Thus, the intuition may be seen to cover all of being even though it does so in a way that is far removed from Kants intent to describe an intuition that was precisely tailored to the world It is interesting to reflect on how the concept-object XE "Object:Concept-object"  system might work. It appears that memory XE "Memory"  is among the crucial elements. The organismbrain and so onis pre-con-formed to its environment to the extent that it has the ability to form concepts that have a degree of con-formation to objectsone of which is the world as a wholethat is adequate to function. Even though it may be conventionally thought that the process of concept formation begins at birth, the pre-natal infant is in interaction with theuterineenvironment before birth and this is at least a tactile, kinesthetic and gravitational environment and some concept formation begins before birth. The divide between purely programmed development and development-in-contact-with-environment is surely not at all sharp or all occurring at some particular phase of development. However, in the latter phase of development-in-contact, the forms of the environment result in con-formal forms being laid down in memory. Thus seen, memory is more than e.g. the memory of facts, it is memory of form that is laid down in neural pathways and connections and so on (memory of facts is probably not distinct in kind though it is likely at a shallower level.) This is possible because of the pre-con-formation that arose in genesisi.e. in evolution (replacing evolution by biblical or any other genesis need not change the present argument.) What is laid down then is a system of concepts or concept-templates. Once this has occurred, perception is likely a combination of object data recall and comparison of memory-concepts. The impression of the object is need not be the result of an entire system of concept-data being received but may be partially received and partially recalled (which, in an organism that remains at least somewhat adaptable i.e. con-formable to new contexts, may continually result in the laying down and modification of memory-concepts even if the bulk of laying down may have occurred in the developmental phase.) Sharing of reception and recall in reconstruction is easily seen to be efficient in comparison to reconstruction entirely from received data and realistic in comparison in comparison to reconstruction entirely from memory (the latter is at least dominant in imagination, dreaming and form of thought.) It is important to note that the memory-concept is likely in no sense a geometric or other recognizable image in the sense that if the neural pattern XE "Pattern" -process that corresponds to a concept were mapped in a dynamic three-dimensional image it would not likely have any discrete form orroughrecognizable congruence to the object. Undoubtedly there must be some kind and degree of con-formation The process just described may be labeled iconic perception which is intended to convey the perception of physical form (even though such form derives from both entity XE "Entity"  and perception.) Given the symbolic capability which must also include memory-association of memory-symbols and memory-percepts, symbolic recall and adequate freedoms of symbolic form, result in symbolic expression and operation (thought and reason.) While the description of cognition XE "Cognition"  just given shows that some degree of con-formation to objects is necessary and reasonable, it does not ground any precise or faithful con-formation. To ground faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  by showing XE "Proof:Showing"  that the con-formation of iconic perception may be regardedroughlyas the empiricist program. It is clear from the present discussion that such a program will found rough and ready faithfulness but generally no more. This conclusion has often been regarded as undermining objectivity XE "Objectivity"  but it can now be seen that it undermines only one approach to foundation of objectivity and not the other approaches described above An argument from con-formation supports some concept and realization of sufficient faithfulness XE "Faithfulness" . The argument and the concept may both be labeled transcendental XE "Transcendental"  Concrete and Abstract Objects XE "Object" a brief Natural History XE "History" . Concrete or Particular objects are originally thought of as objects or real entities of the world of which we have or aspire to have knowledge. The present sense of particular is close but not identical to a common sense in which it stands in contrast to universal. That is, while particular objects can usually be interpreted as single entitiese.g. a chain of mountains may be thought of as one geological feature, universals XE "Universals"  are typically characteristics of classes of objects. Although abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s such as number and universale.g. rednessare often thought to exist, the nature of their existence XE "Existence"  is questionedthey can be conceived but do not appear to be sensible, and where do they exist?. Typically, they are not thought to exist in this worldperhaps they exist in an ideal world or perhaps, as abstractions from (classes of) particular objects, they are partial objects that may be regarded as existing in this world but may, as a result of abstraction, lack some of the characteristics of particular objects such as having causal efficacy and location in space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time. Anothersimilarapproach to the nature of abstract objects is to regard them as collections. From metaphysics, many particular objects repeat infinitely and the collection of objects that so results from a particular object has an abstract character. Therefore, the abstract-particular distinction is seen to be blurred Definitive treatment of particular and abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s. From the metaphysics, all objectsand conceptsmust reside in the universe; there is no ideal world of abstract objects, ideas or forms. Further, from the fundamental principle of metaphysics, every concept that neither harbors nor entails contradiction isand must berealized. Therefore, as far as realization is concerned there is no distinction between particular and abstract objects. That an abstract object may have no location in space XE "Time and space:Space"  may be a result of location having no place in the concept A review of standard lists of objects shows that the distinction is not an actual one but regards the way in which objects are studied. Whereas both kinds have concept and object sides, a particular object is studied from the object sideempiricallywhile an abstract object is studied conceptually or symbolically. This distinction is not absolute for the dominant mode of study may switch. The positron was predicted theoretically and discovered later. The study of number must have originally been empirical but its later development was symbolic and still later it became possible to study number theory computationally which is at least partially empirical in nature. Number XE "Number"  continues, mostly, to be considered abstract because it is via symbolic definition XE "Definition"  that it achieves clarity and, since, concepts aretriviallythe place of clarity / non-clarity it may be thought that this will remain the case into the extended future; this, however, is neither altogether clear nor given. It is important that while an object may be studied symbolically, such study guarantees existence XE "Existence"  only if the development is consistentand that if consistency XE "Consistency"  cannot be determined it may be useful to attempt to study the object side directly or semi-directly in terms of a model. Purely conceptual study can hone consistency but is not universally guaranteed to eliminate inconsistency. From the metaphysics, the consistency of this approach to the abstract versus the particular is built into it. It was not to have been expected that from a list of objects regarded as abstract only in that they did not seem to be particular (concrete,) that there should be any explicit criterion of abstractness such as not having causal efficacy, not having extension or duration, being defined as equivalence in which objects are distinct if and only if certain functionse.g. propertiesare distinct. It remains of interest, naturally, to characterize objectsespecially abstract objectsaccording to kind; such a characterization will, of course, be both empirical and conceptual Further distinctions among objects. The distinction full versus partial is typically a distinction of particular versus abstract. Distinctions that determine existence XE "Existence"  include actual versus fictional and logical versus contradictory; from the metaphysics, these distinctions are identical but while the former is based in the object, the latter is based in the concept. Another distinction of this kind is the existent versus the non-existent object. A non-existent object is either one that does not exist in a given context XE "Context"  e.g. there are no golden mountains in this cosmological system or one that harbors a contradiction e.g. a square circle; this distinction is conceptually amusing and perhaps interesting and emphasizes the significance of concept and object in understanding knowledge and objects but no essential significance of the non-existent object has come to light in this studyhowever, it may be interesting to regard the void as the universe of non-existent objects from which actual object XE "Actual object" s come into being by shedding properties (so that the contradiction collapses.) A distinction according to definiteness of being suggests the following classes: manifest versus potential and determinate versus indeterminate. Sense XE "Meaning:Sense"  may be seen as latent or potential reference; without latent reference, there can be no sense. That values and morals may be seen as indeterminate or partially determinate shows that the distinction of fact and value is not categorial. Distinction according to quality of knowledge is also possiblethese are, of course, not true distinctions of kinds of object; the following arise: absolute versus practical, definite versus vague, and entire versus filtered The variety of being. Objects XE "Object" , particular and abstract, may be enumerated first by example, and second by category of intuitionif category intuition is regarded with sufficient generality as in Human being XE "Human Being" , there can be no broader system of categories. The categories include the practical distinction nature-society XE "Society" -universal-mind (in which universal pertains to the meaning of universe as in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  but not to thescholasticcontrast to particular.) Actual XE "Modality:Actuality"  varieties are taken up in the narrative, especially in Metaphysics, Objectsthe present section, Logic XE "Logic" , Cosmology XE "Cosmology" , and Human World The science XE "Science"  of physics may be regarded as the study of the simplest attributes XE "Attributes"  of the objects of the external world. In Logic XE "Logic"  it will be seen that physics is an interactive study from both concept and object sides. The study from the concept side includes mathematics XE "Mathematics"  whose origin may have been in an object side but whose systematic study is most conveniently conceptual. That many different kinds of systems may be studied in terms of the same mathematics, is a result of similarity of the physical formand behaviorof the different systems. That the social XE "Society"  sciences are not as universally mathematical as the physical may be due to the unique / complex character of social systems. Some future, perhaps qualitative, mathematics may reduce the social sciences to symbolic study. However, given that the objectsocietyis as complex as the instrumentpsyche XE "Psyche" and, especially in that whatever is unique in human being is, in the nature of the case, of constitutive interest, a future mathematical sociology may, in general, be restricted to situations of merely utilitarian interest The categories of intuition XE "Intuition in the sense of Kant:Categories"  also contain the distinctions according to existence XE "Existence" actual versus fictional, according to definiteness of beingmanifest versus potential and determinate versus indeterminate, and according to quality of knowledgeabsolute versus practical, definite versus vague, and entire versus filtered. Some distinctions have instances in the following. Applications. The variety may be extended in application e.g. Theory XE "Theory"  of identitytaken up in Cosmology XE "Cosmology" . The form of ethics XE "Morals:Ethics" ; morals as objects; ethics and objectivity XE "Objectivity" taken up in Social worldethics, i.e., moral content and moral characteristics, is seen as defining a kind of potential object. All objects influence XE "Influence"  their future in some sense, e.g., a stone has a physical stability XE "Stability"  that gives its identity a certain endurance. Objects XE "Object"  with autonomy develop corrective tendencies to self-preservation and stabilize against destruction. preservation, self-destruction and social XE "Society"  disruption. When the object or agent evolves to the point of, e.g., humanity where it is capable of some degree of understanding, specifying, its freedom, especially symbolically, and initiating acts of freedom, it may develop values of self-preservation, against self-destruction, in physical, human, aesthetic, epistemic, and universal realms. Action XE "Action" , concept and object: there is a realm of understanding that stands above concept and object in which concept, object and action are in interaction; this realm is closer to the root than is the discrete concept and object or knowledge as independent of its application. The number of fundamental conceptsin Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , a number of fundamental concepts were identifiedbeing, universe, void, form, the normal However, since, experience, which may form foundation of the metaphysics, is capable of analysis, there are, perhaps, no fundamental conceptsbeing-in-the-world is or may be more fundamental than foundation. Truth XE "Truth" from the theory of objects, coherence is reference (correspondence) of a system of ideas or concepts, i.e. meaning, and therefore truth, lie only partially in single propositions. The Real XE "Real, the"  and Universals XE "Universals" the nature of the real and of the universals is resolved in Objects Pure metaphysics. A rough distinction between metaphysics and cosmology has been madein a restricted sense, metaphysics studies being as such; in an inclusive sense, metaphysics includes cosmology (and perhaps science XE "Science"  and much else.) It is now possible to define pure metaphysics as the study of absolute object XE "Object:Absolute" s (the thought arises that further restriction may be made to those absolute objects such as universe, domain and void and their logical dependents whose being is as given as being itself but, even though the distinction is interesting, the restriction would make the concept of pure metaphysics a theoretical exercise that even though real and useful and less than its potential as both conceptual and empirical) Object XE "Object"  constancy and object holism. These features occur in intuition as does object filtering. The features may be understood without explanation as features of intuition. Recalling that the intuition is adaptation, constancy and holism of object requires no further explanation except, perhaps, to note that, since objects are laid down in memory XE "Memory"  as wholes rather thanor, since there is arbitrariness to the decomposition of the field of experience into objects, as muchas bundles of properties, there is no true problem of how the elements are integrated into a whole (detailed explanation in terms of microscopic and integrated neural structure will of course be of interest.) Ego, transcendence, immersionthat incomplete objectivity XE "Objectivity"  is necessary and, therefore, necessarily good The chapters Ethics and Faith XE "Faith" , take up some aspects of the responses of human beingbeings with freedom and choice XE "Choice" to object / world indeterminacy. These discussions elaborate the nature of objects Logic XE "Logic"  and meaning Introduction. A traditional notion of logic XE "Logic" the science XE "Science"  or art of inference and, more generally, of argumentsees inference as arguing from premises to conclusions. An aspect of this view is that inference is always questionable because, ultimately, there must be unfounded premises; however, it has been seen that experience and existence XE "Existence"  are facts that require no further foundation. Thus these facts and a host of necessary inferences from them may serve as absolute premises for further inference. In the traditional notion, inference is classed as deductive in which the conclusions necessarily follow from the premises and inductive inference in which the conclusions are likely but not necessary. A model for deductive inference is inference regarding compound propositions. If A is the compound proposition B&C then the truth XE "Truth"  of A implies the truth of B and C. Based on such examples it is possible to arrive at a set of rules of inference and a calculus of propositionsthe propositional calculusthat may be regarded as an abstract system and that can be shown to be consistent and complete. Other logical systems such as the predicate calculus in which the structure of the propositions figure in inference are harder to found and regarding these open questions remain Inductive inference generally involves generalization or inferring a rule from a finite set of data and, except in the relatively uninteresting case of domains that are a collection of points that is known to be finite in number, cannot be certain. The Aristotelian developmentprimarily of the syllogismwas, for the most part, regarded as the definitive treatment of deduction XE "Deduction"  for about 2000 years; and, though not altogether devoid of interest, western logic may have been regarded as a dead subject studied only in the schools. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, spurred by the revolution in the foundations of mathematics XE "Mathematics"  and its needs, logic came to life XE "Life"  and a variety of deductive logics XE "Logic:Logics"  emerged and the focus in logic concentrated on deductionlogic became synonymous with deduction. Induction XE "Induction"  came to refer primarily to the method of the sciences Experiments with compound propositions suggest that if and only if the compound proposition has complete reference, i.e. if and only if every component proposition has reference, paradox XE "Paradox"  results. The approach can be used to resolve a number of logical paradoxes. This suggests that proper referenceeither to an object or a transparent modelmay be the basis of logical systems and their consistency XE "Consistency" . It further suggests that, contrary to a common view, systems of logic XE "Logic"  have meaning Preliminaries from Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and Objects XE "Object" . From Metaphysics, all entities are in the universe, form is immanent in being, and every consistent concept is realized. The actual and the possible are identical; therefore what is possible is also necessary. This suggests a concept of Logic XE "Logic"  as the analysistheoryof the possible or, equivalently, of the actual That this notion of Logic XE "Logic"  should not be circular follows from the empirical discovery of laws of logic and may also be explained though notwithout further considerationproved by appeal to adaptation or transcendental XE "Transcendental"  argument XE "Transcendental argument" s From Logic XE "Logic"  as theory of the possible and the actual, it follows that Logic is the one law of the entire universe Whatever is allowed by logic XE "Logic"  is absolutely possible The concept of Logic XE "Logic"  as analysis of the actual / possible appears to define a kind of extensional necessity that contrasts with the common concept of necessity that may be labeled intensional and in which necessary propositions are true regardless of reference. However, since every consistent concept has an object and therefore there is no essential distinction between intentional and extensional necessities. This is further emphasized in Objects XE "Object"  where it was seen that both concrete and abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s exist in the one universe and that the distinction is one of the mode of study than mode of being, i.e. both concrete and abstract concepts have reference to real objects. Again, everyconsistentconcept has an object; the distinction between abstract and concrete object XE "Object:Concrete" s is one of convenience ofapproach, i.e. symbolic versus empirical, and not one of kind. Sense XE "Meaning:Sense"  is latent or potential reference; without latent reference, there can be no sense The concept of Logic XE "Logic" . The foregoing suggest an equivalent concept of Logic as the analysistheoryof descriptions In the preceding statement, provided that it is understood with sufficient generality, science XE "Science"  may replace theory The notion of Logic XE "Logic"  as the analysis, theory or science XE "Science"  of descriptions has the following virtues Deduction XE "Deduction"  concerns truth XE "Truth"  of one proposition relative to the truth of another. Therefore, the standard concept of logic XE "Logic" logics XE "Logic:Logics" deduction, falls withinor out ofLogic as defined here Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" s thought that from the truth XE "Truth"  of one atomic proposition, the truth of another does not follow concerns independent propositions It coincides with the idea of Logic XE "Logic"  as the analysis of the possible (and therefore, also, of the necessary) It shows that Logic XE "Logic"  is anabstractobject. More precisely, Logic is the concept and the universe is the object. It is therefore reasonable to identify Logos XE "Logos"  as the universe i.e., Logic and Logos as concept and object Similarly, the Logics XE "Logic:Logics"  are abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s, i.e. concepts that must have objects; Logics have referencea Logic XE "Logic"  (logic) may be regarded as a premise that, in deductive proof XE "Proof" , is necessary It shows the crucial importance of reference to Logic XE "Logic"  and Logics XE "Logic:Logics" . It also shows Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" s thought that Logic and Grammar are identical and, further, that Syntax and Meaning XE "Meaning"  are inseparable e.g. Syntax is not devoid of meaning Meaning XE "Meaning" , appropriately interpreted, is identical to Logic XE "Logic"  and Grammar but may be regarded as focus on the experiential sidesense which is latent referenceand experimental side of Logic and Grammar It shows that full reference is fundamental to the robustness of logic XE "Logic"  or logics XE "Logic:Logics" , especially in illuminating and eliminating the classical paradoxes of logic and in formulating logics or Logics as the study of certain kinds of object (it may be practical, however, to study logics and attempt to build consistency XE "Consistency"  in from the abstract or conceptual sidestarting with intuition and models.) There is good reason to think that the requirement of full and proper reference is necessary and sufficient to robustness of Logics. Here, again, lies the connection of Logic to the worldLogic may be founded in the requirement full and proper reference It may be allowed that conception generally, including sensing, depicting, imaging are forms of description and therefore there is a grammar or logic XE "Logic"  of conceptionof symbolic expression, of sensing, depicting and or imaging It is not the possibility of a connection of logic XE "Logic"  and being with grammar that is surprisingthat there may be a connection is obvious once it is pointed out What is surprising is the clarity and necessity of the connection, that the connection is one of identity rather than mere relatedness. It may also surprising that the connection should have emerged when it was not sought Logic XE "Logic"  and the problem of the infinite. An immensely important concern regarding Logic as theory of description and the requirement of reference is the infinite casefor what is an infinite object what is the object whose concept refers to an infinite extension or an infinite collection? There are preliminary thoughts on the object side of infinity in Objects XE "Object"  and in Logic Is the requirement of proper reference necessary to validity in Logic XE "Logic"  and Grammar? Since various semantic paradoxes (Russell XE "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William" ) and set-theoretic paradoxes (Zermelo-Fraenkel-Skolem and von Neumann-Bernays-Gdel XE "Gdel, Kurt" ) have been resolved by non-referential artifacts, the requirement of proper reference may be unnecessary These thoughts define a research project That the paradoxes have been resolved by non-referential artifacts is not clear. The valid aspects of the various analysesof Russell XE "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William"  and othersshould be studied to see if reference is the root justificationKripke employs the term grounding Secondly, a general study of the nature of logical objects and infinite objects may be undertaken to analyze necessary and sufficient conditions of validity including the important case of the necessity and sufficiency of proper reference. The abstract and Logical objects may be studied directlywherepossible or semi-directly in terms of models In any case, however, it appears reasonable that requiring proper reference may be rich in consequences Logic XE "Logic"  and metaphysics. In this conception, Logic isequivalent tometaphysics; Logic is the constitutive form of being. It may be noted that although Logic and metaphysics are identical, metaphysics initially emphasizes facts or states of being and Logic initially emphasizes structure or relationships among facts, and that any apparent distinction lies only in the initial appearance. Whereas metaphysics emphasizes the study of being from the object side while Logic may be regarded as study that emphasizes the concept side There is a project to develop this concept of Logic XE "Logic"  and its consequences Logos XE "Logos" . In this conception, Logic XE "Logic"  is the one law of the universe. The immanent form of Logic may be called Logos. More accurately, perhaps, Logos contains the immanent form of any actual Logic. Then, Logos is simply the universe. This also follows from the idea of Logic as theory of descriptions The immanent character of Logic XE "Logic" and of Language XE "Language"  and Grammarmakes it clear that reference is crucial in Logic and Grammar It may be shown by examples, that improper reference may result in paradox XE "Paradox"  and that a number of the classical paradoxes may be resolved by paying proper attention to reference It certainly appears that proper reference is sufficient to valid Logic XE "Logic"  or Grammar Mathematics XE "Mathematics" , science XE "Science" , and Logic XE "Logic" . Therefore, it also follows that inductive inference is contained inor falls out ofLogic as are mathematics and science (and all proper forms of knowledge and argument whether inductive or deductive.) Mathematics as the study of form in terms of symbolic representationmodeling. Scientific theorytheory in generalas fact versus best hypothesis XE "Hypothesis"  What is science XE "Science" ? It is not a primary objective of the narrative to answer this question and it is not assumed that there is a simple answer. The term science has different families of meaning according to whether science refers to a body or bodies of information or theories, to an activity, to an institution, to an approach or method or to some combination of these possibilities. It is not the intent, either, to evaluate the logic XE "Logic"  or the value of science. However, since the metaphysics of immanence and science so clearly intersect within the domain of science, since there may appear to be conflict between the metaphysics and science, since it is argued that the metaphysics illuminates science and that science illustrates and elaborates the metaphysics, it will be useful to make some comments on science There is no conflict between metaphysics and science XE "Science" . Science, as it is usually understood, is conceptual but remains close to its empirical groundin this cosmos. Within that contingent XE "Contingent"  realm, science reignsat least with regard to material realityand provides elaboration, illustration and grindstone for the metaphysics. Outside this cosmological system, where science is suggestive, the metaphysics and science may be mutually illuminating. In phases or domains of the universe that are extremely remote from this cosmos, science may have occasional application but has no necessary general application and the metaphysics reigns As a result of its empirical ground that is centered in the immediate world and moves outward with discovery, the ideas and theories of science XE "Science"  are often thought to have a hypothetical character. This thought emerged in the twentieth centurythe result of a number of scientific revolutions from about 1850 to 1960. Each revolution had such an impact on the view of the world, that doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  emerged that any such world view could be regarded as final. Therefore, the corresponding theoriesof evolution; of the molecular basis of chemistry; of space XE "Time and space:Space" , time, and fields; of the quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories" ; and of the molecular basis of life XE "Life" were, at least initially, regarded as hypothetical. Those theories whose domain is relatively restrictedchemistry within the solar system, life on this earthare no longer generally regarded as hypotheticalat least within the scientific community. The theories of space, time and fields and of the quantum, however, are regarded as being tentative In each case of scientific theory there is a concept, the theory, and an object to which the theory refers. In saying that a theory is a concept it should be noted that such a concept is compound and its constituents are the individual concepts, laws, and explanatory systems of the theory. If the object of the theory is regarded as the entire universe then the corresponding concept either has no applicationlittle is known about life XE "Life"  in the universe at largeor is wrong for there is little doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  that theoretical physics is still incomplete; and, further, the metaphysics of immanence shows that, relative to the entire universe, the theoretical physics of this cosmos must be incomplete. However, the object of the theory may regarded as being limited by its domain of validity. Given the excellent explanatory and predictive power XE "Power"  of the theories, each concept or theory may be said to have excellent reference to a limited objectthe object defined by the theory and limited by its domain of validity In summary, science XE "Science"  is characterized by concepts that remain in close and ideally precise empirical contact with their objects. The domain of empirical science starts with thismaterial and mental but not spiritual XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual" world and, in extending the knownmacroscopic and microscopicreaches of the cosmos, it emanates both outward and inward Is mathematics XE "Mathematics"  a science XE "Science" ? It has sometimes been regarded as one but, since its methods areit appearsdeductive and not inductive or experimental, it is also clearly distinct from natural and social XE "Society"  sciences. The similarities and differences between mathematics and the sciences may be clarified in terms of the theory of objects. Mathematics may be seen as a study of actual object XE "Actual object" s from the concept side. It is known from the theory of being that a mathematical system must, if it is consistent, have an actual object but it is not always known what that object is and therefore study of concept side may be the only way of studyin addition, as is in the character of mathematical objects, to being a most productive way of study; further, because the actual object side may remain implicit, there is the possibility that a mathematical or logical system may lack referenceand may therefore be inconsistent and it may be required to patch up such inconsistency from the concept side as in the discussion of Logic XE "Logic"  and the problem of the infinite, above, or to live with the possibility of inconsistency However, as was seen in Objects XE "Object" , mathematical systems often begin from a study of an object side (e.g. geometry as the measurement of the earth and number in counting) and only later move into a focus on the concept side but as in some kinds of computational proof XE "Proof"  may have return to the object side. The example of geometry also shows that by changing or relaxing certain assumptions or axioms a broader class of systems (e.g. geometries) is obtainedthe domain of reference expands. It is in fact the focus on the concept side without reference, which should have difficulty for non-finite systems, to an object side that makes mathematical and logical systems susceptible to paradox XE "Paradox"  at which, in the absence of known reference, attempts at resolution are made from the concept side (or reference to a transparent model.) The science XE "Science"  of physics is studied from the concept sidein theoretical developmentand the object sidein experimental studyand seeks consistency XE "Consistency"  between the object and concept side as well as internal consistency in the concept side; and in so doing, the domain of reference expands. Perhaps the decision to distinguish mathematics XE "Mathematics"  and science is a function of attitude rather than objecti.e., when mathematics and science are themselves seen as objects. At minimum, it may be admitted that, while mathematics and science may have sharp distinction in some phases of their activity, no sharp distinction can be maintained eternally or even over historical time Is the inclusion of Mathematics XE "Mathematics"  in Logic XE "Logic"  the logicist thesis of Russell XE "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William" ? Whether it is shall depend on where logic is thought to stop and where mathematics thought to begin. It is not the case that what is traditionally taken to be logic (as in the Frege XE "Frege, Gottlob" -Russell logicism XE "Mathematics:Foundations:Logicism" ) is shown here to found or contain mathematics Science XE "Science"  and logic XE "Logic" . As describing a limited phase of beingthis cosmos, life XE "Life" , human mindthe laws and theories of science falls under Logic: although the laws and theories may be seen as having a hypothetical character, they may also be seen as factual over some domain. Since Logical and Mathematical objects have concept and object sides, there is, similarly, the possibility of incompleteness of Logical and Mathematical theories. The method of science is induction XE "Induction"  or generalization from particular cases. This method does not fall underdeductiveLogic. There appears to be no analog in scientific discovery to deduction XE "Deduction"  in logic and mathematics XE "Mathematics" , i.e., while the results of inference in science fall under Logic, scientific inference itself does notthere is a literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  on discovery in science that need not be repeated here that refers to simplicity, beauty, following intuition and guesses. However, logic and mathematics are not so different. While the method of deduction in mathematics or logic is characterized by certainty, the approach to arriving at a mathematical or logical system is characterized by trial and error guided by simplicity, beauty, following intuition and guesses. Briefly, then, scientific and mathematical theories have similarities in content, argument within the bounds of the theory, approaches to developing theory, and incompleteness of reference Rethinking Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" s Tractacus Logico-Philosophicus. In reviewing the developments of this narrative, especially those regarding the fact of being as implicit in the fact and content of its meaning, the metaphysics, the discussion of Form XE "Form" , and the present discussion of Logic XE "Logic" , it seems that the ideas veer in the direction of Wittgensteins Tractacuswhose thought followed a similar patter and has influence XE "Influence"  and significance hereand go beyond it in some aspects. The ideas that the universe isin the global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  mode of descriptionall its states and that all its states are all states is close to Wittgensteins thought that the universe is the sum of its atomic facts. A distinction between the present thinking and that of Wittgenstein is that, here, the kind and enumerability and denotabilityreferenceof all states is not given at outset or assumed to be possibleeven in principle. Additionally, there are parts of the Tractacus e.g. the discussion of Ethics that suffer from an implicit substance XE "Substance"  thinking regarding the nature of the object The backward foundation, elimination of substance XE "Substance"  thought, and elaboration of the ideas of the Tractacus is a project that awaits keen analysis Some details. Second proof XE "Proof"  of the fundamental principle of metaphysics Logics XE "Logic:Logics"  e.g. modal XE "Modality"  logic XE "Logic"  and its relation to the developments of the concepts of possibility and necessity A Platoniclikeview without a Platonic world XE "Platonism:There is no Platonic world"  The nature of mathematics XE "Mathematics"  The concept of theory; arbitrariness of the distinction of fact and pattern XE "Pattern" both fact and pattern are objects Hypothetical XE "Hypothesis:Hypothetical"  versus factual interpretation of scientific theories The theoretical and practical nature of induction XE "Induction"  The issue of induction and certainty Meaning XE "Meaning" . In its concern with the experiential and experimental side of Logic XE "Logic" the study of the worldmeaning comes, with Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" , to emphasize context XE "Context"  (use) over the lexicon, to emphasize that sense or latent reference is always in process. The ideas of the fixed lexicon and fixed syntax are an arrest. Further, from the connection with Logic, complete meaning can reside only in systems of concepts which may bethe experimental sidein process or evolution; meaning of individual terms is fragmented and may be distributed in more than one way (it is crucial to pay attention to the meanings of terms in this narrative.) From the practical side, an identical situation obtains regarding axiomatic systems; the meaning of the system resides in it taken as a whole; the evolution of such systems occurs in the first place in their genesis and, then, in a sequence of such systems in which each step is a modification in response to the needsexplicit or notof reference. It is thus that the study of abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s and axiomatic systems is both symbolic or abstract and experimental Grammatical forms; emotion XE "Emotion"  and will. Is there a fixed set of grammatical forms? Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig"  argued, for example, that the ideas covered by noun are so varied that conflation (mind and brick are nouns) leads to misleading con-fusion. Whitehead XE "Whitehead, Alfred North"  questioned the universality of the standard subject-predicate formtaught in schoolsfor expression. Does emotion have an object? One view is that emotion is simply expression and has no object; however, it is conceivable that emotion has a diffuse and variable, perhaps even latent, object located somewhere in the organism-environment. What is the significance of emotion and will and motivation in relation to the distinctions expression vs. assertion vs. declaration vs. commission vs. direction? These questions have relationship because sentences that express emotion or feeling XE "Feeling"  of the affective type are one mode ofapparentlynon subject-predicate form e.g. Ugh! and Huh? Reflect on the metaphysics of immanenceall objects are in the universe, every consistent concept is realized and the theory of objects developed abovethe distinction between abstract and concrete object XE "Object:Concrete" s is not one of kind as is commonly thought but is one of which mode of study (conceptual or symbolic and so on versus empirical,) sense is latent reference These observations reinforce the idea that emotion and will may have an object, that grammar which is cognitive in form and emotion expressed in language XE "Language"  may have unification and that there may be a universal mode of expression even if it is not the subject-predicate form. These thoughts, of course, suggest a program of research whose outcome may be glimpsed but is not known (experience suggests that even glimpses may be well off mark with some outcomes being negative and others quite beyond expectation in extent and quality) Preliminaries from Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and Objects XE "Object" selected from an earlier set of preliminaries in Logic XE "Logic" . From Metaphysics, all entities are in the universe, form is immanent in being, and every consistent concept is realized. The actual and the possible are identical; therefore what is possible is also necessary. This suggests a concept of Logic as the analysistheoryof the possible and appears to define a kind of extensional necessity that contrasts with the common concept of necessity that may be labeled intentional and in which necessary propositions are true regardless of reference. It has been seen, however, that the distinction between intensional and extensional necessity is not an essential distinction. From Objects, everyconsistentconcept has an object; the distinction between abstract and particular objects is one of (convenience of) approach, i.e. symbolic versus empirical, and not one of kind. Sense XE "Meaning:Sense"  is latent or potential reference; without latent reference, there can be no sense Sense XE "Meaning:Sense"  and reference. It has been seen that the two sides of knowing an entity XE "Entity"  are concept and object. That distinction corresponds to the sides of meaning as suggested by Frege XE "Frege, Gottlob" : sense and reference (here, it has been seen that sense must be latent reference.) The following distinctions are similar, connotation XE "Meaning:Connotation"  versus denotation XE "Meaning:Denotation"  and intension XE "Meaning:Intension"  versus extension Mind XE "Mind"  The fundamental character of experience. In Being XE "Being" , experience was seen to be a form of being. It was also pointed out that proof XE "Proof"  is not invariably relative to unproven premises. Experience XE "Experience"  is part of the fact of my being but is so fundamental that no further definition XE "Definition"  of its nature is possibleof course examples of experience and synonyms for experience may be given but these elaborations are not definitions, rather they add to the meaning of experience by elaborating its reference. I.e. the sense of experience remains primitive in intuitionfor some primitive must remain and it is not to be founded in something else. Even if there is no external world, there is experience. The aspect of method employed here is the identification of a necessary objectexperience is a necessary object that is primarily not external in the sense that it is not experienced but may be experienced and when experienced is also externalrecall that the meaning of external is not spatially outside The form of experience includes that of the object. An argument that objects lie in the external world was given but this argument was probable and not necessary. From the Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , however, it follows that in some manifestations of being e.g. cosmological systems there must be a system of sentient beings and objects. There is of course no practical reason to doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  the arguments applicability to this cosmological system but doubting it in general may lead to clarification and illumination of the nature of experience and world. Regarding objects as of the external world (external does not mean outside here but object of experience) and given the fundamental character of experience, that it is in experience that I am appraised of being, experience must be the fundamental character of mind. Thus mind does not appear to be an object except that in a sufficiently reflexive mind, there may be awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  or experience of experience and, so, experience may be treated as an object (which may be further confirmed from the treatment of Objects XE "Object" . In the manifest world, experience and thingsabstract and particular (concrete)may be regarded as dual forms of object Attitude and action. In the recent philosophical literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , experience, attitude and action have been regarded as the attributes XE "Attributes"  or dimensions of mind. The approach to this result is rather empirical in nature and lacks necessity because in responding to a question what is mind the connection is associative and neither semantic nor necessary. Other dimensions might be investigated but it may be noted that attitude and action are fundamental in that they represent the modalities of map and navigation or, perhaps, representation and change. However, attitude and action are not so much separate attributes or dimensions of mind but correlates of experience over and above pure experience. Therefore, attitude and action are not regarded as constitutive of mind. Experience XE "Experience"  is the fundamental character of mind (the question of awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  without consciousness XE "Consciousness"  is addressed below) Mind XE "Mind"  and matter. It is not possible for both mind and matter to be substances for substances cannot interact. Consider the case where matter is the substance XE "Substance"  (this case is perhaps for some purposes a rough approximation to state of this cosmos; however, focus is not on this cosmos but, so as to understand the consequences of a strict materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism" , on the idealized case of matter asthesubstance.) In this case, mind must be a manifestation of matter. It is useful to ask how this world would be under that materialistic ontology. Organism and environment would be material. In the materialist ontology, experience and knowledge are material. However, experience and knowledge are reference even if latent. The kind of the relation must be a material relation which are forces of interaction among matter. However, in a materialist ontology, force must be a mode of matter (which, though inessential to the present argument, is the case in modern physics.) Therefore, in the materialist ontology, experience and knowledge are material relations. If all forces are sums of elementary forcesas seems to be the case in this cosmosthen experience is some aggregate andor average over elementary interactions. Thus mind goes to the rooti.e. mind-as-manifest XE "Mind:Manifest"  is already contained in the elementary interactions. Mind and matter are not distinct and are coeval. This is not a pan-psychism if by that term it is meant that all human or animal like aspects of mind are found at the elementary level e.g. that a little human mind may be found in a proton. Although the concept is generally not its object, a concept is an object: there is no special space XE "Time and space:Space"  of mental objects. Experience XE "Experience"  or feeling XE "Feeling" understood sufficiently generally and abstractlyis the character of mind which goes to the root. Higheranimalmind is structure, elaboration, focusing and summing or intensifying of the elementary function. Structurethe form of objects; elaborationthe sensory modalities when environment is object, the (higher) feeling modalities when the organism is the object; focusingattention; intensifyingbright versus dim consciousness XE "Consciousness"  versus feeling without experience of consciousness Mind XE "Mind" . How is the above account to be modified to account for the metaphysics of immanence in which there is and can be no true substance XE "Substance"  but the void in its absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  may be seen as generating the world? Now, mind may not necessarily originate at the root (but neither does matter nor any substance.) Mind may be infused from one part of the universe to another. However, even though mind may not originate at the root it may and must sometimes reach down to it Consciousness XE "Consciousness" . It is now seen that animal and human consciousness includes elements of structure, elaboration, focusing and intensifying of elementary feeling XE "Feeling" . What is meant by elementary feeling? It is the root of mind in the organism where e.g. the physical modalities of light, sound, contact, chemistrynot ultimately distinctmanifest as sensory modalities of sight, hearing, touch and taste and smell. How deep does this go? As deep as is necessary to reach the substance XE "Substance" -root of this cosmological system. What that means is as follows. Even though there is no substance root for the entire universe, as seen in metaphysics of immanence, a stable cosmos may have, for normal phenomena, a substance-root which, in this cosmos, may be taken, currently, to be the elementary particles. I.e. in this cosmological system, feeling must go down to this root (on assumption that it is the root.) Much is explained. The conscious-unconscious XE "Unconscious, the"  dimension is not a polarity of presence and absence but a polarity of more and less. Consciousness is not so much on-off XE "Consciousness:Apparent on-off character of"  as is awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  of consciousness. How it is possible to have awareness without (bright) consciousness. The bright or focal consciousness versus scanning and peripheral consciousness field. Consciousness has sometimes been identified with awareness of awareness XE "Consciousness:Is not awareness of awareness"  or linguistic awareness of awareness but these appear to be mechanisms of focus and cultivation rather than consciousness itself Contrary to some claims in the recent literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  of consciousness XE "Consciousness"  there are not two kinds of consciousnessthe phenomenal consciousness that has been the topic of discussion so far and a-consciousness or access-consciousness which is awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  without phenomenal consciousness; as consciousness a-consciousness is incoherentto assert that it is a form of consciousness is to conflate distinct categories; it is not being said at all that there is no a-consciousness but that it is a category error to use the word consciousness for both kinds and, that since phenomenal consciousness is the prototype, a-consciousness should perhaps be given some other name The thoughts about a-consciousness XE "Consciousness"  could be mistaken in the following way. Perhaps there are two kinds of personand one kind truly does not have experience but only a-consciousness. They would be like zombies amid the rest of us but would not be like those theoretical zombies who are like the rest in every material way but did not have experience. They would be fundamentally distinct even materially as the previous discussion shows they must be to lack experience Now consider the case in which the distinction is not absolute but is a tendency. If there is a distinction this is the real XE "Real, the" istic case. One kind tends to phenomenal consciousness XE "Consciousness"  as the mode of knowledge (as relation to the world) and the other kind tends to knowledge without phenomenal consciousness. The kinds would be sufficiently similar and their behavior sufficiently alike that the distinction would not be at all apparent. However, they would talk at cross purposes. One kind would sing the praises of the experience of a sunset; the other kind would deny mind, feeling XE "Feeling" , experience and consciousness altogether; a third kind, not a true kind, would be the first kind but confused by the deliberations of the second. The suspicion is that there are in fact only two kindsthe first and the third and that the second kind does not exist. The appearance of the second kind arises in those persons who are persuaded by theoretical confusion to talk a certain kind of (a-consciousness) language XE "Language"  and for whom the persuasion is not especially difficult on account of an innate biological attenuation of intensity of experience. Again, however, in pathological cases this third kind might reduce to the second. A fourth kind may be defineda kind that enjoys the simulation of kind regardless of innate kind and that may even simulate him or her self Method. Explanation versus proof XE "Proof" . Given the magnitude of the topic of discussion, explanation is perhaps the most that may be achieved. Certainly, explanation is most conducive to understanding, clarification, and to painting a picture of mind. There is proof as well but, as noted in the earlier discussion of method, proof is generally easy and what is desired is interpretation (whose character may vary according to case) Let us be a little clearer about what is achieved in explanation and interpretation. One initial point is some essential features of mind revealed by the metaphysics starting from the coreexperience. Another is some actual and possible features of mind and consciousness XE "Consciousness"  for an organism in this cosmological system. Reasoning about this dual system yields an interpretation of the actual features of organism-mind and a resolution of the possible features into an actual form Freedoms. Since organism and environment have essentially new features relative to origins, there must be freedoms; note that the consistency XE "Consistency"  of freedomindeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" and form has already been established. Especially in artifacts of concept, language XE "Language"  and technology, the source of freedomcreationmust be in the organism. However, bindingstable formmust also be present. The concepts of and varieties of freedom and binding and their identities and interrelations will be elaborated in Human World where implications of freedom will be taken up. Freedom and method. If a human individual were guided by an external agent, freedom would of the human individual not be necessary. However, at root, some guiding agent would require to be free. The freedom of the human individual is therefore a normalimmensely probablebut not a necessary inference from novelty XE "Originality - creative power in being and mind:Novelty" . I.e. when human freedom is doubted, the function of doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  is clarification of the nature and source of freedom in an organism with significant bindingdeterminism XE "Determinism" to clarify the significance of political freedom over conceptual and moral freedom and so on but there is no further practical reason to doubt freedom Attributes. From an idea of mind and matter as substances, Spinoza XE "Spinoza, Benedict de"  suggested the possibility of an infinite number of attributes XE "Attributes" . However, it has been seen that there are no substances and that the mental and material correspond to inner and outer aspects of an organism or particleto experience and experienced, to concept and object. This suggests that there is no continuation to the series that begins with mind and matter. This of course does not imply that there are no elaborations of experience and of object e.g. the manifestation as matter. However, it suggests that while there may be elaborations, degrees, intensities, depths of consciousness XE "Consciousness"  (yet) unknown to human being, there is no mode of being beyond conscious being; and it suggests that the variety of external object may be labeled matter even if that should be of infinitely greater than the matter of this cosmological system. Since the sensory modalities correspond roughly to the modes of physical interaction it is easy to imagine the existence XE "Existence"  of e.g. cosmological systems where creatures have sensory modalities that are not possessed by any living form on earth. That the list mind, matter may have no continuation does not imply that there is no other basis for a system of attributes Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  Introductionmethod. The general method has already been elucidatedit is the method of proof XE "Proof"  and interpretation. It may be re-emphasized that this method is regarded as a framework of thoughtnot the algorithm for thought. Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  will be considered in two partsvariety and behavior or dynamics of being. As noted below, behavior is implicit in variety via the global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  perspective XE "Perspective"  General and local cosmology XE "Cosmology:Local" . General cosmology XE "Cosmology:General"  is the Theory XE "Theory"  of the variety of being without restriction to kindor, simply, cosmology is the theory of variety. In the global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  perspective XE "Perspective" , a description of variety includes a description of origins. Concerns of the theory. (1) General cosmology. Ad hoc description andways or methods ofsystematic enumeration of the variety of being i.e. of the variety of objects and kinds of object. Includes cosmologies from literature XE "Fiction:Literature" myth XE "Fiction:Myth" , scripture and micro-cosmologiesstory XE "Fiction:Story" , novel and so on. Necessary XE "Modality:Necessity"  mechanism XE "Mechanism" (2) A dual or interactive study of general and local cosmologies. Includes physical cosmologies. Coherence in cosmological systemsform and entity XE "Entity" , space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time, mechanism, (quasi) determinism XE "Determinism"  and causation XE "Causation" , and origins. Includes focus on actual systems e.g. this cosmological system. Local cosmology includes study of matter, mind and, perhaps, life XE "Life" and their varieties Local cosmology is also an occasion to study possibilities for the concepts of form and entity XE "Entity" , space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time and so on in generalto what extent this general study may be definitive shall fall out of analysis General cosmology XE "Cosmology:Local"  XE "Cosmology:General" metaphysical principles in the study of variety. Experience XE "Experience"  and its varieties are forms of being. The notions of all, difference, domain, present moment, and immediate past and present define objects. All objectsincluding Forms, Patterns and Lawsare in the universe. There are no fictions except contradictions. Every consistent concept is realized. The void which contains no object or formor pattern XE "Pattern"  or lawexists. Void XE "Void" . The actual, the possible, and the necessary are identical. These thoughts provide an envelope for completeness It becomes clear that beginnings of cosmology are implicit in the metaphysicsin the analysis of the necessary objects such as all and void and in the study of Form XE "Form"  or perhaps earlier in recognition of the fact of experience and in enumerating its forms. As noted earlier, there are narrow interpretations of metaphysics and cosmology. In their narrow meanings, metaphysics is the study of depth XE "Depth"  and foundation e.g. what is the simplest form of being from which all being comes or be seen as coming; and cosmology is the theory of variety and origins. However, the distinction between metaphysics and cosmology is not perfectly sharp and in broader interpretations they are identical Some conclusions from the fundamental principle. The number and variety of states of the universe is infinite. There are infinite collections. The concept of the class of consistent concepts presents a problem. What is that class? How is it formed? This question defines a research project, first, in the concept and approaches to constructionrealizationof the class and, second, in its implications for variety I.e., there is a project to study the idea of the class or system or classes of consistent conceptions, pictures, and descriptions. A source of the idea to this project is the intuition that while the fact of infinite varietyand some aspects of varietyare revealed, that variety may have deep and intricate limitations The issue may have resolution in terms of the concept of patch, mentioned in the context XE "Context"  of global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  and local descriptions There are no fictions except contradictions. The universe is infinitely more varied than the description in any myth XE "Fiction:Myth" , any fictional account, any scripture, and any science XE "Science" . The universe is infinitely more varied than this cosmological system The regular behavior of this cosmological system in which there is structure and there appear to be inaccessible states, in which there is causal like behavior is termed normal. The meaning of normal is open because this cosmos is notmay or may not bea prototype for all cosmological or other formed systems An entire panorama of possibility and actuality opens up. Two examplessubject, of course, to consistency XE "Consistency" . (1) Any piece of fiction XE "Fiction"  is realized. (2) Any known state of any cosmological system is infinitely repeated It is possible to talk of a map of the universe. The physical map of a scientifically informed person might have the universe originating with a big bang about 20 billion years ago and extending about 20 billion light years across. That physical universe, here called the local cosmological system XE "Cosmology:Local"  is a finite dot in the infinity of the universe as revealed here. The infinitesimal character of the local system regards not only extent and duration but also kind and variety of being Identity XE "Identity" . The identity of an object or of an Individual XE "Individual"  begins with the sense of continuity or sameness XE "Identity:Sameness"  in changestated this way, the identity of an object in time and personal identity can be given a uniform treatment: personal identity is the sense of sameness of self. However, identity does not stop at the sense of sameness but must be based in actual sameness. The fundamental principle shows that there is and must be higher or more inclusive identity and that the identity of human and other organisms must participate in higher identities even though not normally aware of this participation. Identity is sameness despite variety. This gives meaning to recurrence XE "Recurrence"  of sequential lives of an individual as delimited by birth and death and the condition of thinking of the self as finite which is a conception in which other animals may not participate Similarly, the fundamental principle implies that finite beings including human beings participate in the depth XE "Depth"  and variety of being. In the limit the individual participates in Brahman XE "Brahman" . Normal XE "Normal"  limits concern this life XE "Life" . Death is a gate to infinity A speculation regarding identityfrom the developments, the following speculations are not unreasonablea higher identity may be experienced as if awakening from a dream; this might be the normal experience of higher identity from this life XE "Life" ; experience of higher identity by design may be exceptional. From a higher form than this form, a normal experience of higher identity may be by design; from a lower form, normal experience of higher identity may be as if awakening from deep sleep Through identity, every organism will have infinite knowledgeknowledge greater than the variety of this cosmos. However, such knowledge may be irrelevant to the quality of being. At root, knower and known remain in near identity; from this ground, in which knower, known and action are bound together, the knower separates from the known An approach to a comprehensive list of objects and categoriesfundamental or otherwisemay be stated. (1) Start from the established position that the manifest universe and the void are equivalentand that they as well as related entities are objects. Construction. (2) From thought and tradition develop a list of approaches to the variety of ways to classify and so to list objects (below.) (3) Develop lists of objects and kinds of object. Criticism. (4) From Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , Objects XE "Object" , and Logic XE "Logic" . (5) It may subsequently be possible to evaluate in what ways the development is complete The variety of beingrepeated from Objects XE "Object" , emphasizes intuition as a source of kinds of object, describes a variety of kinds. Objects, particular and abstract, may be enumerated first by example, and second by category of intuitionif category intuition is regarded with sufficient generality as in Human being XE "Human Being" , there can be no broader system of categories. The categories include the practical distinction nature-society XE "Society" -universal-mind (in which universal pertains to the meaning of universe as in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  but not to thescholasticcontrast to particular.) Actual XE "Modality:Actuality"  varieties are taken up in the narrative, especially in Metaphysics, Objectsthe present section, Logic XE "Logic" , Cosmology XE "Cosmology" , and Human World The science XE "Science"  of physics may be regarded as the study of the simplest attributes XE "Attributes"  of the objects of the external world. In Logic XE "Logic"  it will be seen that physics is an interactive study from both concept and object sides. The study from the concept side includes mathematics XE "Mathematics"  whose origin may have been in an object side but whose systematic study is most conveniently conceptual. That many different kinds of systems may be studied in terms of the same mathematics, is a result of similarity of the physical formand behaviorof the different systems. That the social XE "Society"  sciences are not as universally mathematical as the physical may be due to the unique / complex character of social systems. Some future, perhaps qualitative, mathematics may reduce the social sciences to symbolic study. However, given that the objectsocietyis as complex as the instrumentpsyche XE "Psyche" and, especially in that whatever is unique in human being is, in the nature of the case, of constitutive interest, a future mathematical sociology may, in general, be restricted to situations of merely utilitarian interest The categories of intuition XE "Intuition in the sense of Kant:Categories"  also contain the distinctions according to existence XE "Existence" actual versus fictional, according to definiteness of beingmanifest versus potential and determinate versus indeterminate, and according to quality of knowledgeabsolute versus practical, definite versus vague, and entire versus filtered. Some distinctions have instances in the following. Applications. The variety may be extended in application e.g. Theory XE "Theory"  of identity. The form of ethics XE "Morals:Ethics" . Morals XE "Morals"  as objects; ethics and objectivity XE "Objectivity" . Action XE "Action" , concept and object. The number of fundamental concepts. Truth XE "Truth" from the theory of objects, coherence is reference (correspondence) of a system of ideas or concepts. The Real XE "Real, the"  and Universals XE "Universals"  A variety in general cosmology XE "Cosmology:General" . The existence XE "Existence"  of the following objects is a consequence of the fundamental principle. Annihilation XE "Annihilation" . Recurrence XE "Recurrence" and Karma XE "Karma" . Identity XE "Identity"  that spans the identities of normal individuals in this world and other identities see the theory of identity developed earlier. Miracles in the sense of exception to laws of this cosmological system. A Jesus Christ rising from the dead. Recurrence and Identity. Significance in being. Fact XE "Fact" , fiction XE "Fiction"  and the unending Variety XE "Variety"  of being. Scripture and truth XE "Truth" . The nature of death. Creation XE "Creation" . God XE "God" . The idea of self-creation. Interaction of the elements of being. Ghosts and ghost cosmological systems. Spirit as the possible transformations of the normal. Soul as the identity of a normal individualsee the theory of identity developed earlier. There are no distinct universes. The Limit XE "Limit" of imagination That Jesus Christ rising from the dead is an object somewhere in the universe gives little support to its being an object some 2000 years ago in Jerusalem. Practical study of objects. The following is suggested by Objects XE "Object"  and by common sense. Empirical studyrecollection of experience, imagination; discovery, exploration and experiment XE "Experiment" empirical science XE "Science" . Conceptual studyfiction XE "Fiction"  and literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , abstraction from particular or concrete object XE "Object:Concrete" s, concept formation, study of patterns of actual and abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s, axiomatic systems, mathematics XE "Mathematics" , theoretical science From the study of Logic XE "Logic" since Logic and Grammar have meaning which includes reference they define an objectthe Logos XE "Logos"  or Universe XE "Universe" . The Universe and Law of the universe define the same object. In having meaning, Syntax defines an abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" . In that there is a variety of syntactical forms, the abstract object of Syntax is seen as compound. Thevalidlogics XE "Logic:Logics"  are objects. A sentence, an inference, an argumentthese are objects. The variety of objects is further taken up in Human World and Problems in metaphysics A dual or interactive study of general and local cosmologiesthe following outline is repeated from the introduction to Cosmology XE "Cosmology" . Includes physical cosmologies. Coherence in cosmological systemsform and entity XE "Entity" , space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time, mechanism XE "Mechanism" , (quasi) determinism XE "Determinism"  and causation XE "Causation" , and origins. Includes focus on actual systems e.g. this cosmological system. Local cosmology XE "Cosmology:Local"  includes study of matter, mind and, perhaps, life XE "Life" and their varieties Local cosmology XE "Cosmology:Local"  is also an occasion to study possibilities for the concepts of form and entity XE "Entity" , space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time, mechanism XE "Mechanism" , (quasi) determinism XE "Determinism"  and causation XE "Causation" , and origins in general. To what extent this general study may be definitive shall fall out of analysis. There is an interaction between the general and local studies. The local cosmology suggests concepts that may have general significance. The general study may result in an enumeration of ways the concepts may generalize and consequences for the local case. As an example of an application of this line of thought, it will be seen that what space and time there may be in the entire universe appears to be relative space and time, the relation between the universe and this cosmos may determine whether space and time in this cosmos will have absolute characteristics Some of the following cosmological considerations and definitions have been discussed earlier The universe enters a stage of being the void. From a manifest state, the universe does and must enter the void state. This may be viewed as annihilation XE "Annihilation"  of themanifest state of theuniverse From the void, the universe must enter a manifest state of being The universe may be in the void or in a manifest state. Both are actual, neither eternal. There are and must be occasions of both manifest and void being The previous assertions properly resolve the question Why is there something rather than nothing? that has been called the fundamental problem of metaphysics. The resolution is that occasions of manifest being are necessary. However it is not necessary that manifest being is eternal, i.e., that there is always manifest beingthere must be occasions of void being In the void or non-manifest state there is no experience, e.g., experience of a universe. If there is experience, e.g., when there is deliberation of the fundamental problem of metaphysics, the universe must be in a manifest state The developments in Mind XE "Mind"  Mind, show that in any manifest state there is experience but not necessarily of the focused, acute kind that is experienced by the living beings of earth; the truth XE "Truth"  of this assertion required aconsistentextension of the concept of experience to the root or ground of being The normal. It is useful to review this concept that was introduced earlier. The regular behavior of this cosmological system in which there is structure and there appear to be inaccessible states, in which there is causal or causal-like behavior, is termed normal. The meaning of the normal, however, must, at least initially, be an open concept because, although, this cosmos is the necessary inspiration XE "Inspiration" , it may or may not be a prototype for what is sought, i.e., what is sought may fall out of study The states of the universe. Karma XE "Karma" . Annihilation XE "Annihilation" . Equivalence among states. Indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  of origins. There universe has infinitely many statesit is especially true that there are infinitely many normal cosmological systems. Excepting contradiction, every actual state of being within the universe and everypossible or validdescription of a domain of the universe will recur infinitely. This assertion of eternal return rings of karma A truly karmic interpretation requires superposition of eternal return with identity as discussed earlier In entering the void state, a manifest phase of the universe may be said to be annihilated Since the void is absolutely indeterministic, and a void may be regarded as attached to every state and every domain the annihilation XE "Annihilation"  may be regarded as being brought about by the void There is no special significance to annihilation XE "Annihilation"  by the void; the annihilation may be regarded as self annihilation In the sense that every state flows from it, every state is equivalent to the void Every state is equivalent to every other state In the global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  perspective XE "Perspective"  it might be said that the universe is in a state of the void; however, it may be also said that it is not; this form of the assertion encourages the twin habit of using both local and global perspectives All is change and flux and all is unchanging (Parmenides, Plato XE "Plato" ) may be read equally from the metaphysics of immanence but are, of course, dependent on perspective XE "Perspective"  The origin of a formed or even transient cosmos from the void is necessarily indeterministicthe void does not in any sense contain or map deterministically or in a one-to-one manner to a formed state of the universe Although the void may be thought of a base state of the universe relative to which formation and origins occur, the role of base state may be played by any state Causation XE "Causation"  and determinism XE "Determinism" . The concept of causation may be seen as a topic in cosmology Cause can be seen as interaction among dynamic form XE "Form: Dynamic" s that have similar characteristics but can also be interpreted as a Form XE "Form"  that includes the interacting forms There can be no causal relation among static forms and there is little causal relation among highly transient forms In general, causation XE "Causation"  is little like the causation of classical physics or even the probabilistic causation of quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  physics In a highly generalized sense of causation XE "Causation" , there may be said to be universal causation but such causation is little like classical or quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  causation and is not at all deterministic. In the generalized, indeterministic, non one-to-one sense, the void may be thought of as causing manifest being. However, to say so might be misleading Theclassicalidea of causation XE "Causation"  suggests determinism XE "Determinism"  or near determinism; it suggests, in the case of creation, that what is created is containedin some sensein the creating agent It is good to say that while manifest being may come from the void, it is not contained in or determined by the void There is no universal causation XE "Causation" . There is no universal causation of the classical or quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  kinds. Perhaps the label quasi-causation or normal causation is more applicable than causation. Such quasi or normal causation must have exception in a normal cosmological system. It was earlier noted that the meaning of normal must remain open. It is normaland necessarythat there should be exceptions to normal behavior There are and must be phases that are normally causal and normally deterministic As a result universal absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" no unaccessed statessuch phases must exist but cannot be absolutely causalin the classical senseor absolutely deterministic All causation XE "Causation"  is at most quasi-causation; all determinism XE "Determinism"  is at most quasi-determinism As a result of universal interactionwhich follows from the fundamental principle, there must be some weakkind ofuniversal causation XE "Causation"  It is seen again how much truth XE "Truth"  is affected by meaning Absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , form, and absolute determinism XE "Determinism" . The universe is absolutely indeterministicthis means that the only inaccessible and unaccessed states are the logically inaccessible states It is often thought that indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  cannot explain form and structure Since there are no inaccessible and unaccessed states in absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , states of form and structure must too be accessed. The probability XE "Normal:Probability"  or population of the universe by formed states or cosmological systems is addressed below The absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  of the universe is that noconsistentstates are unaccessed. This contains the absolute determinism XE "Determinism"  that allconsistentstates are accessed The absolute determinism XE "Determinism"  regards which states are accessed i.e. all states are accessed. This absolute determinism is distinct from the classical concept of temporal determinism. The absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  regards the manner including sequence of access It is not only true that indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  and form are not inconsistent; they are necessarily consistent. Absolute indeterminism and absolute determinism XE "Determinism"  are necessarily consistent Mechanism XE "Mechanism"  and explanation. Mechanism is an aspect of cosmology Mechanisms or explanations show only probability XE "Normal:Probability" , relative stability XE "Stability" , near symmetry XE "Symmetry"  While it may be thought that formed states are relatively improbable relative to transient states, near symmetry XE "Symmetry"  and relative stability XE "Stability"  imply greater durability Perception is likely selective in the sense that there is greater focal perceptivity of complex forms in cosmological systems of certain types of greater complexity It appears reasonable that combination of greater durability and perceptivity should result a greater population of perceived states that are formed than those that are unformed If it is true that a high degree of form necessarily entails high perceptivity, then the population of perceived states will not depend on kind of form This kind of reflection may have implications for whether a formed cosmological system must have life XE "Life"  andor sentience XE "Mind:Sentience" . There are reflections of a different nature on this topic in Mind XE "Mind"  The normal is a generic term for the being of a formed cosmos in an absolutely indeterministic background Mechanism XE "Mechanism"  is typically associated with the normal Whereas formation by a single step is logically possible and therefore necessary, it seems that incremental variation and selection (of relatively stable states) is far more probable While variation and selection is necessary to form, the number of steps is contingent XE "Contingent"  Space XE "Time and space:Space" , time and matter. In the void there is neither extension nor duration. In the void there is no space or time which are measures of extension and duration In the becoming of a manifest phase of the universe, there is the becoming of duration and extensionof space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time Duration and extension are elements in the becomingin the processrather than original measures of becoming that become comparable or measurable and that fully separate out as space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time rather than space-time only in special cases. Therefore the full measurability and separation of space and time is a very special case. Degrees of separation are dependent on special conditions of a phase or domain of the universe In attempting to conceive whether space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time are the only coordinations of physical being, appeal is made to imagination. It seems to be the case that there is nothing beyond extension and duration, i.e., it seems that space and time are the only coordinate XE "Coordinate or local description"  measures of physical being. However, this case of what seems to be resides in imagination and since it is not clear that imagination is equal to being, it does not follow that what is not seen in imagination is not contained in being. Where imagination of a geometric mold fails, symbolic expression and analysis are often possible, e.g., in the formulation of geometries of dimension higher than three and spaces that are neither homogeneous nor isotropic as is the space of Euclidean geometry The analytic investigation of the extension of being, e.g. spatial and temporal extension, and coordinate XE "Coordinate or local description"  possibilities is a research project. It has often been thought that mental space XE "Time and space:Space"  is one possibility; however, the theory of objects developed in Objects XE "Object"  has cast doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  on this possibility Space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time must be relative and not absolute. I.e., space and time or space-time are not grids whose existence XE "Existence"  and character is independent of being In this cosmological system, individual particles appear to have the same intrinsic time. I.e., although particles have different clock rates under different circumstances e.g. in gravitational fields of different strength, an intrinsic time and universal time can be defined There is no inconsistency involved in the intrinsic time of this cosmos not universalizing to the entire universe A coherent domain of a manifest phase of the universe may have, as a result of the conditions of formation, and perhaps only to a high degree of uniformity, an intrinsic time Different domains of a manifest phase need not have the same intrinsic time. The intrinsic time of a given cosmos may be seen to be the result of coherence which may be interpreted as interaction that has relatively high strength. Different domains or cosmological systems necessarily interact but the interaction may be weakthe coherence lowand therefore their intrinsic times distinct. It is by the weaker interactions that comparison of distinct times can have significance or be measurable Since space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time are measured not by some absolute or imposed standard but by objects there cannot be any universal absolute space and time grids Since a given cosmological system may have interaction with the rest of the universe, that interaction may determine whether the space XE "Time and space:Space" -time of the cosmological system behaves as if absolute Regard regularity of space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time in some ideal sense to have the following characteristics. (1) Space and time are independent grids and each forms a continuum. (2) Time XE "Time and space:Time"  flows uniformly and is unaffected by the distribution of matter. This implies that particles do not so much have intrinsic times as much as that they reside in time. (3) Space is three dimensional and Euclidean Then, whatever, the irregularities of normal space XE "Time and space:Space" -time may be for this cosmological systemas revealed, e.g., in the latest theories of physics XE "Theories of physics" the irregularity for the entire universe must be greater. Further, the reasons for the irregularities of the space-time for the entire universe may include the reasons for the irregularities for this cosmos Independently of the foregoing conclusion, from the formation of manifest phases of being from the void, degrees of regularity of space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time are not at all given but must be the product of special circumstances Identity XE "Identity"  in general cosmology XE "Cosmology:General" . In omitting all regularity of space XE "Time and space:Space"  and time, it does not follow that there is no memory XE "Memory"  across non-manifest phases of the universe and therefore in contemplating identity, the object of contemplation is the object of general cosmology Human World Human World develops an account of the human world from the perspective XE "Perspective"  of Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of" , especially Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and Mind XE "Mind" . There is no thought to regard human being as apart from or above or below animal being or animal nature. Place of the division in the journey XE "Journey" . (1) Understanding XE "Understanding" knowledgeof human being and society XE "Society"  will be instrumental in undertaking the journey, especially in the initial phases of ideas and transformation XE "Transformation" . (2) Illustration of the Theory of Being XE "Being"  especially rounding out the Cosmology XE "Cosmology"  and provision of apotential alternateapproach to the Metaphysics Human World is also presented as a contribution to thought, especially in the study of human mind, society XE "Society"  and its institutions, valuesethics XE "Morals:Ethics" , and faith Since the focus is on psyche XE "Psyche"  and groupmind and society XE "Society" the title of this chapter could be psychological and social anthropology Academic psychology XE "Psychology"  often regards itself as the objective study of thehumanpsyche XE "Psyche"  and therefore does not admit experienceconsciousness XE "Consciousness"  and related subjective aspects of psyche into its domain of study. In response, it is often claimed that the existence XE "Existence"  of a subjective side is objectively knownwhich has been shown in this narrative to be aperhaps thefundamental fact of the meaning of experience. Further, that knowledge has a subjective side does not constitutively imply that it is not objective; objectivity XE "Objectivity"  must be a contingent XE "Contingent"  or case by case concern. In this narrative, psychology has no a priori restrictions of subject matter except, of course, in its focus onhumanmind. While the contours of the discussion concern mind as such, the treatment is, however, selective with regard to detailthe general interest lies in the place and evolution of mind in general XE "Mind:Primal" , the necessity and nature of animal / human freedoms, the given versus development in human being, the use of the metaphysics of immanence to shed light on these basic questions, and those aspects of the human world that enhance realization of the goals of the journey XE "Journey"  Method has been outlined in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . Metaphysics (theory of being) provides a framework of necessarythough occasionally contingent XE "Contingent" assertions and proof XE "Proof" . Here, the human world is a special context XE "Context"  and most data e.g. psychology XE "Psychology"  will be contextual or contingentbut some elements of data e.g. the fact of bound and free elements inhumanmind will be shown necessary. Conclusions are necessary when all premises including proofsform of proof may be regarded as a premise and necessary proof is deductive proof. When any premise is contingent, conclusions may be contingent Freedom and necessity. The degree of variation among human individuals and culturesand within culturessuggests that human beings have certain kinds of freedoms and this is apparently confirmed by individual reflection on the ability to conceive of alternate possibilities of action especially toward some chosen end, to choose from among the alternatives and to act constructively toward that choice XE "Choice" . There is, however, a tradition of debate about freedomespecially in modern philosophy XE "Philosophy:Modern" stemming from scholastic (theological) and modern scientific arguments for determinism XE "Determinism"  in nature and the question of compatibility of freedom and determinism. The significance of freedom is such that debate is natural. What is the true nature of freedom and what are the human and philosophical consequences of its presence or absence? Is nature deterministicand what is determinism? Is freedom compatible with determinism? Is indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  necessary? Is indeterminism sufficient for freedom or must it be a kind of indeterminism? Is there such a thing as human liberty? Why should individuals be accountable for their actions? Can there be true action in the absence of freedom? In absence of freedom can there be creativity, independence, choice, or dignitydo these concepts even have meaning, could they even arise in absence of freedom? In scholastic philosophy XE "Philosophy:Scholastic" , especially in the thought of Thomas Aquinas, discussion of freedom and determinism XE "Determinism"  includes a desire to reconcile the absolute nature of God XE "God"  with human liberty. The science XE "Science"  of Newton XE "Newton, Isaac"  is deterministic in formthis does not guarantee determinism because singular states can be described mathematically whose outcome is not unique. It is not clear, however, whether such states are actual states of the world. Recently, chaos theory has shown that the behavior of chaotic systems is so sensitive to initial conditions as to make prediction of the trajectory of such a system impossible unless initial conditions are known to a precision XE "Precision"  that is not attainable and, on the assumption that the brain may be chaotic, this is sometimes thought to make human freedom compatible with determinism in nature. However, it seems that what may legitimately concluded is that it may be impossible, as a result of chaos, to distinguish true from apparent freedom. While Einstein XE "Einstein, Albert" s theory of gravitationgeneral relativityis deterministic in form, the presence of singularities that make global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  partitioning into spaces at a time and space XE "Time and space:Space" -times that have closed causal loops further complicate what may be inferred regarding the determinism of the world from formally deterministic physical theories Since Newtonian physics may be seen as a deterministic approximation to quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  theory, the latter theory may be expected to provide a more robust foundation for the discussion of freedom. Quantum theory is indeterministic and yet it allows for stable structure and in this is entirely consistent with the idea of human being as having form and behavioral patterns that are often determinate but are not invariably so. Against this there are cognitive scientists who argue from experiments that in many common actions, while there is a conscious sense of choice XE "Choice" , action is actually already executed before the consciousness XE "Consciousness"  occurs. This argument has a simple deficiency in that it does not allow for unconscious XE "Unconscious, the"  choice (it will be seen below that the unconscious is not invariably and entirely in a realm of unawareness but is, rather, inclusive of a realm of dim and non-reflexive awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness" .) Further, the argument does not allow for interaction of consciousness and the unconscious over time in complex actions such as planning, design and execution of diffuse projects especially the project of a life XE "Life"  or of a civilization XE "Civilization" . The comparison may be unfair and is not particularly relevant to the question of freedom but Aquinas seems to have been fair minded in comparison to those science XE "Science"  minded thinkers who rush to make defining conclusions from simple laboratory experiments on a complex creature Is freedom compatible with determinism XE "Determinism" ? Although the question has intellectual interest and has been the occasion for ingenious argument, it is no longer as significant as it was in times when theological and scientific determinism were predominant. Some responses have argued that a sense of freedom is consistent with determinism. Some have argued that the freedom to do what one wills is compatible with determinism. However, the ability to have and make a choice XE "Choice"  is inconsistent with determinism and without choice there could not be freedom to do anything. Therefore, indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  necessary for freedom. Is indeterminism sufficient for freedom? It is not but this is so near to being transparent that the question is not interesting. It is more interesting to ask what kind of indeterminism may be sufficient or necessary for freedom. It is reasonable to think that an indeterminism that is consistent with freedom is one that permits a degree of indeterminism (choice) within a framework of form or structure. Thus, freedom may well be possible within a framework of quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  theory but this is far from having been shown In reading arguments for and against freedom an impression may arise that there is an occasional quickness to make conclusions from ideas or data that are suggestive but not conclusive even though reigning paradigms of thought may dispose thinkers to hold that what is merely suggestive is actually conclusive. The experiments that show that human freedom is an illusionthe result of a desire to believe in such freedomshow only that, in some simple instances, the source of action is not in the bright region of consciousness XE "Consciousness" . The quickness of the conclusion could be explained by the desire of the scientists desire to believe in a strict empiricist program of science XE "Science" or, perhaps, by the satisfaction that is derived from a vision of science and scientist as informing society XE "Society"  (of course this description pertains only to some kinds of science and scientist) Even though the arguments from quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  theory appear to have robustness it is pertinent that a careful reading of the theory appears to makes its status as a non-deterministic theory less than certain. Further, among those physicists who reflect on that theory and its potential as a final theory, there is a growing belief that it is probably an incomplete approximation to a very different theorythe phrase in italics is from Lee Smolin, The Other Einstein XE "Einstein, Albert" , New York Review of Books, June 14, 2007 It seems therefore, in order to think carefully on human freedom at all, the only possible direction is one that may have seemed obvious and natural in the first placereflection on the subject of thought that, in this instance, is human being The essential questions are as follows. (1) What is freedom? (2) What kinds of freedom are there and what is their interrelation? Note that one possible answer to this question is that there are no kindsi.e. there is no freedom. (3) How are the arguments to be made? Freedom is the ability to conceive different outcomes, to choose from among them, and to effect that choice XE "Choice" . The word outcome covers both act and end. If there are 10,000 possible outcomes, 5000 of them may be regarded as one and therefore freedom does not require the effectuation of a precise outcome. However, freedom does require that there should be more than one outcome; i.e. freedom and determinism XE "Determinism"  are incompatible. This concept of freedom requires novel concept formation in the ability to make and execute choice; it will be seen in Human being XE "Human Being"  that these are not distinct freedoms and have basis in the free symbol XE "Symbol" . As suggested above, freedom is without meaning unless it occurs against a background ofat least partiallydetermined form. That determined form includes knowledge and it is against and from that backgrounditself in part the creation of freedomthat novel choice emerges A lesser form of freedom might be the ability to choose from given alternative outcomes but to create alternatives; however, to be aware of the alternatives the individual would have to have anotherlikely humanperson conceive them. The thought that that other person could be God XE "God"  may be discounted from the kinds of argument in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  It should be emphasized the freedom is not the ability to do anything one chooses, that presence of freedom does not mean that acts are fully determined by intent or ends fully determined by intent or acts, or that the exercise significant freedom is free of immense challenge. As noted, freedom is without meaning unless it occurs against a background ofat least partiallydetermined form. Misconceptions regarding the nature of freedom and its place in human life XE "Life"  are a source of tension in discussions of human freedom. Some liberal analytic philosophers have written as though self-definition XE "Definition"  is straight forward and entirely conscious. Here, however, in saying that persons have freedom this view is rejected. Even becoming aware of the fact of freedom and in seeing or creating options is likely to be hesitant and, partly due to a necessary interplay between conscious and unconscious XE "Unconscious, the"  factors, to not follow any foreseeable progression. Existentialists have written as though exercise of freedomin the face of nihilism or adversityis the defining human characteristic. The thought here is that freedom is, as seen below, an essential characteristic. However, no single characteristic is put forward as the defining characteristic and it is not suggested that any struggle for freedom or any noble stand against nihilism is necessary to be authentically human The discussion so far provides an answer to the first and question regarding freedom. It also shows that if there is freedom, what its kinds shall be. It remains to discuss whether there is human freedom. But this also requires addressing the question how the issue may be discussed. In saying earlier that the only possible direction of thought on the issue of freedom is to reflect on human being, the possibility of using the Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  was temporarily suppressed. Since science XE "Science"  and religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and even the history XE "History"  of ideas have little to say on the issue that can be regarded as final and since it is not at all clear that these traditional sources of argument can resolve the issue, argument now turns to Theory XE "Theory"  of being i.e. the Metaphysics in whose ultimate character the traditional sources have been seen to be limited The argument in six steps is supremely simple. (A) The universe enters a state of being the void. (B) The presentstatehas emerged from the void. (C) Since the void is absolute absence, it is essential to the present that it contains novelty XE "Originality - creative power in being and mind:Novelty"  and, since, sufficiently far in the past there was no human culture or even human being, human culture must contain essential novelty. (D) The novelty in human culture must stem human beingfreedomand the environment in interaction. (E) Although it is logically possible (from the skeleton form of argument) for all cultural novelty to have environmental origin, given the complexity of human beingbrainin relation to that of the environment the actual probability XE "Normal:Probability"  of entirely environmental origin is infinitesimal. (In mathematics XE "Mathematics"  an infinitesimal is a number, given rigorous meaning by Abrahamson Robinson in non-standard analysis, not zero but whose magnitude is less than that of any finite number such as 0.01 or 0.002 and so on. Here, however, infinitesimal is used metaphorically to mean extremely small. Also note that the probability in question has not been shown here to be quantifiable since it occurs against the background of the universe of all being; perhaps, therefore, probability is here also best seen as metaphorical.) (F) Human being XE "Human Being"  is apartialdeterminant of human culture and destiny The other determinant is, of course, environment for human being and environment constitute the universe. However, it isobviouslynot being said that the human being and environment together are fully determining for that would be determinism XE "Determinism"  The argument follows a pattern XE "Pattern"  already seen in which an extremely likely and robust contingent XE "Contingent"  conclusion is made within a framework of necessity. Those who want a logical proof XE "Proof"  of human freedom should note that such proof is impossible except on detailed assumptions regarding the structure of the cosmos and may also note that Theory XE "Theory"  of being has shown that there must be beings whowillshare Identity XE "Identity"  with human being who have freedom. Anyone who still desires unconditional logical proof may be encouraged to act upon this desire but may also reflect that it is perhaps a loss based in a misunderstanding of being and human being to be allow this concern to prevent all forward motion into further realms of ideas Human being XE "Human Being"  Organism. When two systems areexistin interaction their forms may be mutually influenced. They may co-form and be co-formed or adapted; they may have con-formationbut it is not implied that such conformation is intrinsic or goes to the root of the being of the systems. Common origins and extensive interaction are two sources of adaptation that goes to or approaches that root. The occurrence of adaptation is necessary; that it should be of a particular kind or degree is, in the particular case, a priori contingent XE "Contingent" . When a kind of degree of adaptation is consistently conceived or observed, that it should occurand occur with infinite repetitionis necessary. While the occurrence of consistent or observed adaptation is necessary, a mechanism XE "Mechanism"  of occurrence such as incremental variation and selection is, in any instance, a priori at most probable. Thatconsistentincremental variation and selection should occur in some instance is necessary. That incremental variation and selection should always be a priori probable is impossible even if it is most often so; it is perhaps more accurate to say that there are probabilities only relative to an initial state that already has form. There must be cases of deep co-adaptationincluding adaptation of organism to environmentwhose genesis was not one of incremental variation and selection. It is not necessary that such cases have occurred on this earth When the process of adaptation becomes coded into the organism, evolution may be said to be internalized. Examples of internalization are the genetic code andcreativeintelligence. The relation between the size of the code and the size of its elements e.g. the primitive molecules that is required for complexity of even the simplest organisms poses an interesting question. The relation between the size of the simplest organisms and the size required for complexity of form and functionand creative intelligencealso poses an interesting question (note that function is dynamic form XE "Form: Dynamic" ) Feeling XE "Feeling" . That psyche XE "Psyche"  is experiencein its forms and varietieshas been shown in Mind XE "Mind" . That experience should, in the case of animal being, be coeval with the material root of the organism was also shown and the potential charge that this is an absurd pan-psychism was considered and critically rejected The elementary unit of experience or psyche XE "Psyche"  may be labeled feeling XE "Feeling" . In this use, feeling contains but is not limited to the common use of feeling as emotion XE "Emotion"  or affect Elements of psyche XE "Psyche" the dimensions and variables of feeling XE "Feeling" . Introduction. The example of sense that includes sensation of environmentsight, hearing and so on, and of bodymuscle tension, motion and position sense and so on shows that the dimensions may be or are experienced as both continuous and discrete. Although any listing of the dimensions may be incomplete there is no ineffable sense even though there may be subtle or low intensity sensing. It is not being said that, when matter is defined as in current physical science XE "Science" , all is matter or there is no spiritual XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  element but that any spiritual element is in the universe and sensory knowledge of it does not lie in a different category from the recognized senses. It is certainly possible that, if there is such sensation, some individuals may possess it to a greater degree than others Feeling has the following variables or dimensions Qualityor sensory mode. Modes defined by environmental variablessight; hearing; touch which includes pressure, friction, hot and cold; taste and smell. Modes that correspond to body variables. Afferentsense associated with receptionmuscle tension; variables associated with other organs including stress; motion and position sense. Efferentsense associated with action and productionmotion; semi-autonomous variables such as breathing; speech; dramatization Intensitywhich includes the positive-negative dimension e.g. pleasure-pain. Below some threshold, sensory variables may not be associated with the positive-negative dimension which disposes to seeking or avoiding action and, at such levels are primary informational in character Bound-free. A bound feeling XE "Feeling"  is one whose intensity and quality are functions of the state of the object of perception (the object is not always identical to the conventional object e.g. when a brick is the conventional object, lighting may be included in the object.) A free feeling is one that is at most partially bound. Free feeling and memory XE "Memory"  are likely interwoven. The free feeling appears to be the source or occasion of novelty XE "Originality - creative power in being and mind:Novelty"  or creativity of mental process; higher creativity occurs in the discipline and cultivation of the higher modes in interaction with the basal. The bound quality of mental content appears to be associated with attitude (intentionality XE "Intentionality" ) and action Function and integration XE "Integration" . The elementary unit of psyche XE "Psyche"  was labeled feeling XE "Feeling" . Does this occur at the level of the most elementary of physical particles, at an atomic or molecular level or at the level of cells or some higher level? It was shown in Mind XE "Mind" , that the most elementary particles have feeling but it may not be necessary to specify which level is fundamental. For most processes of psyche the relevant elementary level may be cellular but there may be aspects of psyche, e.g. indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , for which it is necessary to refer to sub-cellular even elementary particle levels. When talking of a sensation, integration has already occurred but, for much of the discussion of functions of psyche, this level may be taken as elementary Integration XE "Integration"  covers the integration or binding of different sensory feelings XE "Feeling"  in the perception of an object. The sense of object constancy XE "Object constancy"  under rotation and motion is a form of integration. Integration is not entirely bounda tree can be seen as a tree or as 10,000 leaves. Integration is adaptablecultural objects are especially adapted. The unity of consciousness XE "Consciousness:Unity of"  is a form of integration. Complex emotions are integrated. The non-separation and perhaps inseparability of quality and form translates as binding of emotion XE "Emotion"  and perception at primitive levels. Motivation is found in the binding of emotive-feeling and perceptive-feeling; since primitive emotion is sense or perception of body, lower motivation is binding of body to environment (higher motivation is potential binding of psyche XE "Psyche"  to world.) These thoughts concern binding of modes of feeling at primitive levels and show the essential binding of primitive emotion and perception where emotion may be below the threshold of distinctive pleasure-pain but provides perception and thought with a motivational-quality whose lack is pathological. This level of binding of emotive to cognitive feeling is primitive in relation to binding of thought and emotion which has necessary degrees of freedomof integrability and disintegrability. Emotion isprovidesbinding to others and to commitments (possible explanation of non-productive lives of antisocial persons.) Personality is an integral form as is Identity XE "Identity" . Perception may be seen as integrated bound external sensation (hallucination is image memory XE "Memory"  whose intensity matches that of normal perception.) Thought is integrated free sensation. There appear to be thresholds of intensity below which perception and thought lack valence. Higher emotion XE "Emotion:Higher Emotion"  is (hypothetically) a mutually conditioned mix of elementary emotion and thought. Primitive or elementary emotion is bound, internal, valent sensation. Since binding is a function of memory and since memory associations change, it is not correct to think of emotional responses as fixed even though it is the nature of binding that emotion should have strong binding. This is also observed. Emotion may be cultivatedat least in some measure; although joy is not a matter of will, it may be cultivated; and misery may be cultivated for secondary gain. The categories of intuition XE "Intuition in the sense of Kant:Categories"  below are integral forms. Incompleteness of integration. The incompleteness of integration was noted. This incompleteness is essential for it allows integrability and growth XE "Growth" , and it allows the presence of multiple channels of mental process and, especially, focus and periphery (background) Mechanism XE "Mechanism"  of integration XE "Integration" . The actual integration of objects is clearly a function of ability to integratewhich is a function of kind of organism and exposure (growth XE "Growth" .) This would appear to be most efficient; the alternative that integration is entirely built in or innate would place a burden on heredity and would mean that all adaptations would be pre-adaptations. The individual is regarded as having the ability to integrate. The integral forms are laid down in memory XE "Memory"  (neural) which is modified (grows) in exposure Concept XE "Concept" -percept XE "Percept" . These terms have a number of meanings and in their most general meanings have significant overlap. In an elementary meaning, perception is bound to the object while conception has a degree of freedom. In another meaning, the concept is any mental content and, in this use, includes perception. Occasionally perception is used to include conception for, even while conception has freedom, it invariably has potential binding The unconscious XE "Unconscious, the" . Memory XE "Memory"  (relative strength of association) and focus-background are implicated in the unconscious. Two types of unconscious may be identified. (1) What is present in mind but is peripheral to the focal consciousness XE "Consciousness" . This may come to foreground. In some cases the individual becomes aware of the periphery even without its coming to fore e.g. in becoming aware that there had been an awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  a few seconds ago. (2) What is not present but may come into awareness through association that is focal or otherwise. Additionally, lack of integration XE "Integration"  or splitting is also implicated (this concern is significant in neuroses and disintegration or disorder of personality XE "Personality" .) The unconscious enters also as the Form XE "Form"  of intuition which conditions perception and conception but is not itself normally seen Categories of intuition. The ability to perceive the world in terms of objects, space XE "Time and space:Space" , time, causation XE "Causation"  and so on must depend on biological structures and so be innate or partially innate. Such abilities examples of what Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel"  called intuitionthe built-in conformation of percept XE "Percept"  and concept to forms of the world. The following categories deviate from those of Kant and others. Space, time and cause XE "Causation:Cause" suggested by Schopenhauer XE "Schopenhauer, Arthur"  as the forms of intuitionare forms of regularity. It is innate to have adaptation to irregularities and unexpected features of the world. Humor is the category of intuition that adapts to the irregular and the unexpected. In this meaning, humor is related but not identical to its common meaning. Originality XE "Originality - creative power in being and mind"  and humor overlap. The source of this idea is the pronouncement of a friend Humor is the highest form of wisdom. The classes of intuition are the existential, the physical and the biological, and the psychosocial. A system of categories. Existential: Being XE "Being"  (Becoming, Being-in, ), Experience XE "Experience"  and Contentprecursor to self and concept, Object XE "Object" , Humor (the intuition of indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  and chaos.) Physical: Space, Time XE "Time and space:Time" , Physical Object, Causation, Indeterminism. Biological: Life XE "Life"  Form XE "Form"  and Ecosystem, Species, Heredity. Psychosocial: Image-Concept XE "Concept" , Icon-Symbol (and Artifactuality and Language XE "Language" ,) all of which are strongly Cognitive, Emotion XE "Emotion" , Humor, Value XE "Value" , Identity XE "Identity"  Self, Other-as-self e.g. you or thou, Communication, Other-as-object e.g. they. Is such a list necessary or illuminating? It has been presented in such detail because the, for the individual, all the items listed are intuitivehave an intuitive elementwhich is not to say that they entirely innate / do not have a developmental aspect. And, of course, in allowing symbol XE "Symbol" , everything would have an innate aspect in some sense but now, in humor, innateness includes the unpredicted and the unpredictable and so allows reaching out into what not at all innatethe world beyond this worldthe world of what is unknown, what is not contained in person or society XE "Society" . A reduced system might be Object and Humorthe known and the unknown Growth XE "Growth" , personality XE "Personality" , commitments. Classic approaches to personality (these perhaps straddle a number of cultures) include factors and dynamics. A preliminary organization of factors is according to freedom and constraint XE "Constraint"  (in which biology is significant.) These include affective-cognitive style. Dynamics pertains to the interactions among these factors and to action and choice XE "Choice" . Here, dynamics further pertains to fixity, flexibility of dynamics, recognition of the factors (including the unconscious XE "Unconscious, the" ,) cultivation, and reflexivity XE "Reflexivity"  applied to change. Dimensions. What factors mark personality and what are its dimensions? Personality is a function of overall integration XE "Integration"  of psyche XE "Psyche"  (the suggestion a near tautology XE "Tautology" .) It is also reasonable to think that the overall integration is a result of the interaction of experience and the functional system (including the categories of intuition XE "Intuition in the sense of Kant:Categories" .) Therefore, an effective approach to classification (to be synthesized with observation and experience) may include consideration of the varieties of integrationthe differential development of the various functions and their interactions (e.g. and roughly, prominence of emotion XE "Emotion"  would mark a different kind than would prominence of cognition XE "Cognition" . The ratios of binding and freedom and their intensities are also significant.) It may be observed that, roughly, growth follows an (overlapping) sequence of development: natural, social XE "Society" , psychological, universal. These issues remain an ongoing concern The place of a study of personality XE "Personality"  in the journey XE "Journey"  is as follows. There are impediments to realization. These include normal impediments e.g. constraints of intelligence, time, affection, resources There was an initial lack of definition XE "Definition"  of goalsthis, it was recognized, is essential to the endeavor. However, they also recognized characteristic styles of self-perception, relations to life XE "Life" including others and environment and ambition, how they accommodated criticism and success and failurehow they conceived success and failure These overlap personality. Cultivation of self is important; compensation (in addition to change) but not overcompensation (which requires recognition) is also significant. Charisma XE "Charisma"  may, perhaps, be cultivated The role of method in understanding freedom in the expression of personality XE "Personality" . Is personality a form of binding to determined patterns of behavior? The repetitive occurrence of characteristic patterns even when not desired suggests that there is a determined component or tendency. However, there is no empirical foundation to complete determinism XE "Determinism"  in personality for the a general proposition is not proved by instances and, further, it is perhaps true that most observations of determined behavior come from routine behavior where repetition is desired or neurotic behavior where the mechanism XE "Mechanism"  of choice XE "Choice"  has not developed or has been suppressed due to painful associations. There can be no theoretical foundation for determinism in personality even though thinking in earlier eras of determinism in the fundamental sciences may have so predisposed thought. Freedom has been seen to be logically necessary. However, there is no logical proof XE "Proof"  that the individual has freedom for there could be an invisible agent that guides as if free behavior. In development, parents guide the behavior of children. However, to think that all human behavior is so guided is to substitute an extremely improbable explanation for a normal explanation; there is no practical reason to doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  freedom in personality. What is in question is what kinds and extents of freedom there may be. It is suggested that in healthy individual, awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  and expression of choice require time and may develop over time and, when at the boundaries of normal possibility, may require great diligence and focus and may require, for example, an acceptance of anxiety which may be seen as a form of binding Language XE "Language" . Language has the following typical characteristics. Its syntactical forms correspond to states of affairs and modes of communication regarding such states. The standard form of language that corresponds to a state of affairs is the subject-predicate form. The modes of communication are assertion, direction, commission, expression, declaration (assertion includes the sub-forms of fact, exclamation, and question) In spoken form there is a vocabulary; the spoken form follows syntax; the spoken form is associated with para-verbal communication. The written form includes letters that are not signs in themselves but from which signswordsare built; there are punctuation marks and of which some indicate para-verbal communication. However the written form tends to have degrees of dissociation from context XE "Context"  that is both strength and weakness. Language is generally a linear form. Language production and comprehension is a form of intuition but this does not mean that it is entirely innate This picture of language XE "Language"  has a number of deficiencies. Is the subject-predicate form the universal mode of expression? Are there not utterances that are not predicative? Is a groan a linguistic form? Are the parts of speech kinds. Is the suggestion that syntax and semantics are separate fully valid? As communication and expression, how complete is languageeven though there may be special language centers in the brain does this force us to regard language as an entity XE "Entity"  unto itselfor is it continuous with iconic and dramatic production and recognition? Does not the central place of linear language in culture dispose human beings to see language as larger than it isespecially, perhaps, because language becomes a selective factor for kinds of intelligence and activity Exceptional achievement XE "Achievement, exceptional" . Factors of achievement are of interest in the journey XE "Journey"  and in the general case. Achievement results from the cultivation of ability as well as from circumstantial factors. The existence XE "Existence"  of the savant syndrome suggests that exceptional ability is, at least in part, the result of release and this thought has partial confirmation in experiments designed to release ability. Therefore, cultivation of ability is important and in its absence exceptional ability is not at all under individual influence XE "Influence" . The dimensions of abilityand of dysfunctioncorrespond at least approximately to the dimensions of intuition (which include personality XE "Personality" .) Binding of cognition XE "Cognition"  and emotion XE "Emotion"  is significant. Achievement is occasionally but not invariably the result of a healthy psyche XE "Psyche"  and may be a result of release, compensation or occasion that results from deviation from health and, of course, this calls into question the nature of health in relation to psyche and whether health is uniform or multivalent and to what extent health is individual versus cumulative over individuals. In small (hunter-gatherer) societies, shamans have been (it is said) the diviners of truth XE "Truth"  and protectors of psychic and social XE "Society"  integrity. The (true) shaman appears to be a psychically sensitive and charismatic but perhaps physically robust individual who is initiated e.g. by crisis into and completes a journey XE "Journey"  of discovery into other worlds (which may be interpreted as a journey into the self.) Completion of the shamanic journey is importantcognitively as disintegration as preliminary to integration XE "Integration" , breakdown is preliminary to reconstruction in light of the Real XE "Real, the" ; and emotively as confidence that results from living through an experience of complete lack of foundation It is pertinent to ask whether the future inspiration XE "Inspiration"  of the modern world lies only in institution, patriarchalism and normalcy or whether it may lie also in charisma XE "Charisma"  (whose roots may lie in sensitivity and ability) Atman XE "Atman" . The end of growth XE "Atman:Human being as" . Is there an end of growth XE "Growth" ? In the normal theories of growth, death is an ultimate limit. The Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  shows that death cannot be such a limit and, in discussing Identity XE "Identity"  it was shown that Individual XE "Individual"  Identity merges (must merge) in a higher (more comprehensive) identity Such issues may be discussed without end. Their meaning (sense and reference) is realized in action rather than discussion alone. The following is an aspect of the experiments to be undertaken Apprehension of the infinite. Brahman XE "Brahman"  is the real XE "Real, the" ; Atman XE "Atman"  is the limit in individual Identity XE "Identity" . Then, Atman is the Experience XE "Experience"  of Brahman in the Individual XE "Individual"  Social world In Social world, the ideas of society XE "Society" , culture and institution are developed from enumeration of the possible kinds of group interaction in light of the Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and the nature of Human being XE "Human Being" . The significance for the journey XE "Journey"  is that the group, the Social world is, in the elaboration of its nature, one object of interestan object that undertakes a journey, and for the individual it is both ground and support In sociology, culture is often used to refer to the sum of learned and transmitted human knowledge, belief and behavior A central idea is that human freedom is a contributing factor in the makeup of the human social XE "Society"  world. It is not suggested that there is any set of determining factors for it is unlikely that such a set could be found; and it is not thought that individual freedom is necessary for all societieshuman and non-human. However, it is part of the central idea that human freedom is essential for some aspects of human societyand the thought is that that freedom is essential to the self-determining aspects of human society (again, it is not suggested that there is complete determination by any set of factors.) Human freedoms of thoughtlinguistic and otherand action contribute to human culture and it is human culture that defines and binds the various aspects of human society that acquire their structure in the form of institutions A dynamic scene may be described in terms of state, process and genesis. Therefore: The institutional forms are defined by actionand choice XE "Choice" and organization or structure; and the founding or genetic institutionculture that includes, reflexively, the institution of the institution The institutions of culture. (1) Cultural including language XE "Language" , religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and morals and ritual and play, and drama and art, and science XE "Science"  and the humanities (2) Discovery or creation and origination. (3) Transmission including education XE "Education"  and archive. In the modern world these institutions items are often but not at all entirely or solely concentrated in the university (and library) The institutions of organization and action include (1) Social groups and (2) the immanent structures of society XE "Society"  and social groupsEconomic, Political and Legal Completeness. From the components of a dynamic scene, culture, organization, and action constitute a complete system at a high level of generality. As a generic term, Social group is generically but not explicitly complete for organization. Social groups may be seen as groups that are social XE "Society"  entitiesmicrocosms of societysuch as community and family and special purpose such as organizations whose functions are economic, political and legal. Action XE "Action"  is social and (roughly) physical. Political and legal institutions are institutions of group choice XE "Choice"  and action including. Economics as analysis of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services has concern with the interface of social groups and the physical level. The intent of this discussion of completeness has been to show a rough and non-exclusive rather than a neat and necessary completeness Definitions. There is clear interaction among morals, politics XE "Politics"  and economics XE "Economics" . The following definitions are repeated or suggested. Politics is the process of group decisionand action; government is a political institution. The immanent forms of feasibility XE "Feasibility" , especially in human affairs, are labeled Economics; economics is the study of Economics. In this sense economics includes the common economics of the previous paragraph that is suggested by the possibility of generalized application of economic theory. It is clear that Economics and Politics should (and do) intersect for feasibility is a determining factor of political process. Similarly, Ethics and Economics must intersect. Even purely ethical concerns have an economic aspect when the ethical concerns are in conflict. Additionally, equal or equitable distribution of values (education XE "Education" , goods) is subject to economic constraints such as conservationresources are finiteand human motivation in the access of provided values. Legal questions of deterrent have an Economic flavorin the extended sense of economics Experimental character of the concepts. Political theory, political philosophy and the study of economics XE "Economics"  arise from the interest to understand and perhaps to improve social XE "Society"  institutions. In this process a certain study is labeled politics XE "Politics"  and another economics. Later, the notions may be refined andor expanded. The notions are found to be interactive and may have overlap. The very concept of what is economics may change in response to the needs of and learning from study and applicationand from the needs of completeness. Thus, neither sense nor reference of terms such as economics and politics is given. In this sense, the fundamental concepts within social theory are experimental. It may be thought that the natural sciences e.g. physics and biology are not themselves empirical objects; that however is at least partially contingent XE "Contingent"  and a breakthrough in analytical or computational methods could blur the boundary between physics and biology and although it is commonly thought that biological structurese.g. human mindscannot change such things as structure of elementary particles and laws of physics and this is indeed the normal situation, the metaphysics of immanence shows it to be both possible and necessary if infinitesimally probable Institutional purity? Economic power XE "Power"  confers strength and therefore political powerlarge corporations wield immense political power. Is such institutional crossover unavoidable? Is it good / bad for economics XE "Economics" , for politics XE "Politics" , for society XE "Society" ? Is it morally right / wrong? These questions are difficult to answer even in very specific situations. Applied to crossover among any set of institutions the difficulty may be multiplicativelyperhaps exponentiallyhigher. It is not clear, of course, that crossover has meaning in every institutional context XE "Context" . Answers are further complicated by the fact that there is a tendency to make an assumption about one institution when discussing others. It might be thought that it is morally wrong for a corporation to use political power but is it intrinsically wrong or does the wrong stem from an assumption about the most effective social organization? Does a wealthy individual have the right to greater buying power and the greater political power that that might entail? Perhaps, it may be argued, since the existence XE "Existence"  of corporations depends on a law that confers advantages so thatat least idealisticallyall can benefit from economic productivity, the corporation has a greater responsibility in the use of its power. The same, or something similar, however, may be argued of the wealthy individual. What, however, if the corporation or the wealthy person use their power for good? What if the corporation or person uses their power to become economically more powerful? It appears that what is economically, politically, socially good / bad may need case by case evaluation and that the most corporate law can actually do is set up rough guidelines (even while it thinks it is doing something else.) The example also suggests that it isat least practicallyimpossible for a corporation to not use economic power to political ends (purchase of raw materials has a political component.) The example further suggests that while the political / economic distinction is real to suggest that politics and economics define distinct categories is in error As a second example consider a society XE "Society"  in which there is a general belief that religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and secular affairs should be separatewhile church and state may be separated by law, it is hard to see how law could separate religion and secular affairs and it is not possible for human fiat to separate the sacred and the profane even though it might separate the ideas of the sacred and of the profane. In this society there are various kinds of abuse. The people are disempowered, they are abused by the police when they speak out politically, their economic product is taken by the government without fair return, and the power XE "Power"  of government is abusive at home and abroad. The people are religious and revere their clergy who therefore also have political and economic power (donation.) What are the moral uses of clerical power? There are examples of such questions in War and Peace and Faith XE "Faith"  The following thoughts arise: Although there are practical reasons for institutional separationdivision of function, expertise, administration, abusethe concept of institutional purity is more myth XE "Fiction:Myth"  than fact. The problem of institutional definition XE "Definition"  and separation is immense in its magnitude and any actual resolution should, perhaps, be case by case and even so should perhaps be experimental in addition to deriving from expertise, morals, law and administrative needs Institutional definition XE "Definition" conceptual and factualis an immense conceptual and experimental project Dynamics. The triad genesis-organization-action contains implicit dynamics at two levels. Theoretical economics XE "Economics"  contains a number of dynamic theories and modelsdescriptive and quantitative. In the definitions a number of interactive dynamics within and among institutions are implicit. War and peace XE "War and peace"  includes some qualitative dynamics. Further study and development of dynamics of or in society XE "Society" social systemsis a research project Ethics. An ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  or set of morals addresses questions of what one ought to do, how one ought to live. This formulation suggests that morals concern individual behavior and individual life XE "Life" ; however, perhaps as a result of global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  interaction / communication / comparison, ethics has grown to also emphasize individual behavior and group / social XE "Society"  action in group / social / world contexts. The basic questions, then may be extended to What ought I / to we do? and How ought I / we to live? An ethical or moral system is an ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  that covers a comprehensive range of situations in which the ought question arises and a comprehensive range of satisfactory life XE "Life" -styles, perhaps arranged in a value hierarchy. The term ethics may be used in place of ethical system. An ethics may take the form of a set of prescriptions of acceptable and unacceptable behaviorsyou shall not killandor a set of principlesdo to others as you would have them do to youandor an ethical theory. An ethical theory may be seen as a generic principle or collection of generic principles As a disposition to certainkinds ofbehaviors or acts and to seeking certainkinds ofends, morals, prescriptions and principles are states of being and therefore objects. An ethical system is a collection of objects that may be seen as a compound object In philosophy, the generic term Ethics refers to the study and evaluation of ethical systems which include ancient and traditional systems as well as ethical theories. As a collection of dispositions, Ethics is an object The occasion for ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  is freedom. It may have been appropriate to include consideration of ethics / morals in Human being XE "Human Being"  but, since moral systems have cultural expressionbut are not mere artifacts of culture and may therefore have universal elementsit is effective to consider ethics here in Social world. Undoubtedly, individuals in non-human societies have built in behavioral tendenciessome with basis in emotion XE "Emotion" against mutual harm; individuals of other species do occasional but not merely accidental harm one another and so what is built in is, in general, at most a tendency that averts excessive harmwhich situation may be the result of a balance among competing tendencies. Human beings also have such built in tendencies, e.g. a near universal feeling XE "Feeling"  of warmth at seeing an infant. As human freedom developed so did the ability and occasions to override innate tendencies Human freedom, it was earlier noted, is the ability to conceive different outcomes, to choose from among them, and to effect that choice XE "Choice"  and has basisamong other thingsin novel concept formation. It was also noted that exercise of freedom was difficult and one source of difficulty is in overriding innate tendencies. This is one source of a need for morals. If it were the only source, morality might be a conceptual substitute forperhaps even nothing other thaninnate tendencies e.g. primary emotions. However, a significant result of human freedom is the creation of novel culturalincluding technology and social XE "Society"  arrangementcontexts. Here, the innate tendencies are inadequate; therefore human moral systems cannot depend on conceptual and symbolic formulation of innate tendencies and primary emotions alone. Precisely here, incidentally, lies the crux of argument against an entirely emotive explanation of human moralityas well as an argument in favor of a partially emotive explanation. The assertion that human freedom is the occasion for human morals and ethical systems to arise and to have application may make it seem that it is being said that freedom preceded morals; it seems more reasonable, however, that freedom and morals grew together as mutually necessary elements of emerging and developing culture Ethics in particular and value in general has a universal character as a potential object, i.e., a concept that is the universal potential object The occasion for ethical system or theory. Anthropological studyEthics in small-scale societies, George Silberbauer, in A Companion to Ethics, Peter Singer, ed., 1991suggest that in small groups morals are more negotiable and less ends in themselves; their function appears to be the enhancement of personal relationships. In modern society XE "Society" , morals tend to be ends and are less are less negotiable; personal relationships are less importantstability XE "Stability"  derives from institutionalization of various functions and moral creativity is concentrated in specific persons, institutions and times. This is perhaps a function of difficulties in the coordination of shared morals in large societies by interpersonal relations alone. Here, then, lies a possible explanation of the origin of the moral component of world religions. The transition from the traditional codes to ethical theory may be explained by increasing communication and interaction among societies with different traditions and emergence of rationalism in the modern period that dates from the enlightenment; clarification and order among ethical theory may be enhanced by the professionalization of thought in academic institutions Emotion XE "Emotion"  and cognition XE "Cognition"  in morals. Emotion which may be regarded as a form of bindingincluding binding to others by empathyis clearly essential to morals. Emotion is perhaps the foundation of moral intuition and it is not obvious that moral intuition is more than the cognitive expression of the emotive component of morals. The occasion for development of ethical systems over and above ethical intuition is human freedom that may override intuition in old contexts and is instrumental in creation of new contexts that are not in the domain of reference of intuition. The cognitive formulation of ethical system has been criticized on account of its alienation from moral intuition and emotion. This criticism does not take into account the significance and effect of human freedom. The cognitive component of ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  is not free floating and has binding through reason, through experience in the use of ethical systemat least potentially, and through maintaining continuities with tradition and moral intuition which remain important Some persons are persuaded by emotion XE "Emotion"  and others more by reason. Therefore, even an individual who has no intrinsic care for reasons, will be interested in reasons if they would persuade. Everyone who has an interest in morals has some interest in reasoneven if the interest is derivative The process and context XE "Context"  of choice XE "Choice" and freedom. Since freedom is pivotal in morals, it may be useful to examine its process. Situations arise in which there are optionsthere is occasion for alternative outcomes over which there is some control. The options may be presented to andor created by the actorindividual or group. The intended outcome may be act andor an end or outcome of an act. The process may be roughly written, options ( choice ( intent ( action ( end The ellipsis indicate that the ethical context is not necessarily terminating and the generic process is continuing over either similar options (especially when the end or outcome is similar to the original situation) or different ones. The intent is an intended action andor which, since control is typically less than total, may be distinct from the actual action andor end. A number of such processes may occur simultaneously Any element of a process that has elements ofexpression offreedom may have moral value. Each elementor even combination of elementsof the process may be constituted of sub-processes. This is especially the case for action which may be compound and extended. What is the limit of resolution into sub-processes? It is perhaps when the elements are so fine grained that they do not possessclearmoral value Assigning moral value. If the options are simply presented to an actor or actors without his or her or their choice XE "Choice" , moral value may not be not assigned to the options for that actor(s.) If the actor is active in creating options, e.g. conceiving, designing, building and accumulating instruments of war, the optionstheir creation and ongoing existence XE "Existence" may have moral value (positive or negative.) Choice and intent are not invariably distinct but they may be so when there is a time prior to actual intent in which the options are weighed without commitment XE "Commitment" . Even when choice and intent are distinct, the process of choice may have moral value when options that have moral value are allowed to remainor removed fromamong those from which choice will be made. This moral value may, however, be assigned to the options rather than choice. Intent has clear moral value. The distinction between action and ends may be sharp but is not invariably so. Action XE "Action"  and ends may both have clear moral value to the degree that they are under control. The right is a common label for the moral value of an actwhich can be right or wrong; the good is, similarly, a label for the moral value of an end or state of beingwhich may be good or bad. The assignment of moral value is complicated by the fact that elements of the process have physical and psychic dimensionsat least practically though not ultimately. Options may be physical and psychic; choosing and intending are psychic; without a psychic dimension, e.g. choice andor intent, apparent action is not true action; the character of ends is complex for some ends are states of psyche XE "Psyche" , e.g. happiness or loyalty, while those that are physical, e.g. more food may be doubted to count as having moral value unless there is some impact in human experience. If freedom is the occasion for morals, experience is perhapsperhaps with emphasis on perhapsthe place of moral value Evil may be the label for an act, an actor predisposed to or with a history XE "History"  of wrong actions or bad intentions; however, on account of the problematicity of the concept of evil XE "Evil" , the narrative will not focus on it Does lack of clear distinction between acts and ends imply lack of clear distinction between the good XE "Good, the"  and the right? Not necessarily for when the outcome of an act is another act or state of action, the second act or state may also be regarded as an end. In an ethical system, what is regarded as good or intrinsically desirable, may be explicit or implicit. The right, then, refers purely to action, i.e. to what an individual or institutional agent should do in responding to or cultivating the good. Thus ethical systems or theories contain systems of theories of the good and systems or theories of the right. Consequentialism is the view that what is right is the promotion of the good. An ethical system is consequentialistan older term is teleologicalif its theory of right is the promotion of the good. An objection to consequentialism is that it appears to permit deviation from the good in promoting thelargergood, i.e. that it appears to assert that the good end justifies the means. This, however, is not the a consequence of consequentialism for if the means is neutral with regard to the good the statement is irrelevant and if not then there is no a priori justification of means; rather there is or may be an issue of conflicting goods to be resolvedwhose resolution may be already implicit in the theory of the good or, alternatively, may be lacking in which case the system is incomplete or impossible in which case the system may be conflicted or paradoxical. The objection, therefore, is not an objection of principle against consequentialism but may require some consequentialist theories to be completed and others to be made consistent The alternative to consequentialist ethical systems are the non-consequentialist in which action has moral supremacy in that moral value is determined more by action than byother kinds ofends. One kind of non-consequentialist ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  is thestrictlydeontological in which the good XE "Good, the"  lies entirely in the right; here the good must be honored and not merely promoted. There are variations and may be alternatives in approach to the conceptions of consequentialism / non-consequentialism; the present approach attempts to eliminate a priori confusion in the distinction The discussion so far clearly provides no explicit moral systemand is not intended to do so. How is the good XE "Good, the"  or right to be set up and how is the consequentialist / non-consequentialist choice XE "Choice"  to be madewhen it is indeed a choice? Are there deep or deeper principles that generate practical ethics XE "Morals:Ethics" ? Such questions raise the issue of the nature of ethics and ethical reasoningover and above logic XE "Logic" and may be labeled metaethical: metaethics is the study of the nature of ethicsthe nature of moral concepts, judgment, principle and theory. Whereas in ethics moral judgment is the object, in metaethics, ethics itself is the object. In contrast to metaethics which is the study of ethics and ethical systems and concepts, ethical systems that specify systems of right and good have been labeled normative ethics Although developments inphilosophicalethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  have made improved understanding possible, there appears to remain a gap between ethical ideas and applicationand applicability. When ethics is seen as an object, it may be studied / deployed from the concept side i.e. abstractly or from the object side i.e. concretely as in applied ethics. The gap between object and concept sides suggests that philosophical ethics and perhaps even practical human ethics have notcompletelymatured. In the history XE "History"  of philosophy, the separation of areas of study as sciences is perhaps characterized by contact being made by the concept and the object side of study Intrinsic and derived value. Absolute Ethics. Feeling XE "Feeling" experienceappears to be the place of value. The value of non-feeling statesthe inanimate beauty of the Himalaya or a crate of penicillinmay be regarded as derived. However, if feeling is the place of value all animal being has such a place but rocks and crystals do not. This is the normal view. From metaphysics of immanence, however, every element of being has at least primitive and remote experience. In an innate human morality, there must be some natural tendency to place human being at the center of value and it is probably unlikely for any practical ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  to make no distinction between human and other mammals, between mammals and other vertebrates and so on down to inanimate objects. However, if realization and transformation XE "Transformation"  with any ultimate component is a goal, i.e. if normal limits are not regarded as absolute, the practicalnormalhierarchy of value must be seen as limited. In systems that seek to universalize value, animal being has intrinsic value. Is there certainty about what statesexcept those characterized by the most neutral of descriptionshave value and in what degree? Noand this must have something to do with incomplete knowledge of what states are possible and what value may inhere according to what measure in yet unrealized states. In thinking that a satisfactory ethical system has been arrived at, a metaphysicsat least practically and implicitlyis regarded as given. Plato XE "Plato"  developed an ethics in the context XE "Context"  of form. A common belief today, c. DATE \@ "yyyy" 2007, is that the universe is roughly as described in the big-bang cosmology, and that our world is essentially the secular world of material things and secular or non-spiritual XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  value. What has value and in what ranking according to what system is not regarded as precisely known because, in part, of incompletely known possibilities of the secular world. The metaphysics of immanence suggests that that there is an absolute ethics. To explicitly know that ethics and its significance for human being, it is necessary to know at least the possible and feasible XE "Feasibility"  transformations of human form and feeling and though it is known from metaphysics of immanence that the possibilities are immense, only the rudiments of a detailed pictures and paths are known. Still, it is reasonable to think that even if the sense of ethics in absolute ethics is not alien, its reference is immensely remote from the normal view of human being as living in a secular world and that even a Platonic ethics is only a metaphor for the possibilities of reference Values in general. Is the beautiful a value? Many, perhaps most, persons consider the beautiful and its cultivation to be of value. However, does the beautiful have moral value? Axiology orgeneralvalue theory seeks to identify, clarify and compare values such as moral, economic, aesthetic, epistemic and even logical value. Aesthetic valuethe value of the beautifulmay be considered to be a special case of ethical value. If so, it is necessary to ask, on the assumption that a strict distinction exists, how a choice XE "Choice"  might be made between the purely aesthetic and the strictly moral. The question might arise in deliberating the allocation of finite resources to aesthetic projects versus elimination of hunger. One resolution might be in assigning the strictly moral projects a higher value. However, there should be some limit to such an assignment because at least some people might not consider a life XE "Life"  in which only material needs are satisfied to be worth living. In any case, the connection between ethical and aesthetic value is sufficiently tenuous that any tension between them typically surfaces only when imbalance in priorities is excessive. Is there a connection between knowledge and ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  i.e. not only obviously as in the choice of what areas of knowledge are worth developing but in the question whether ethical concerns have any role in clarifying the nature of knowledgein determining what counts as knowledge? Ethics appears to have some role in determining the role of certainty in knowledge. A value of security emphasizes certainty; the value of realization may lessen the value of certainty in favor knowledge that, though less certain, may have greater realization or other utility Competing values. Values may compete logically in that the cultivation of one value necessarily eliminates the otheras in moral dilemmas which may be eliminated in a theoretical system but which continue to be real problems due, not to ignorance, but to conflicted andor different values. A particularly case of logical competition arises in political realism XE "Political realism"  which is the position that national interestat least sometimescomes before individual interest. While this position is maintained by the political realist, it is difficult to maintain strictly by those whose ethical strain is less pure. What is the status of political realism in contrast to individualism in morals which is the position that all values derive from the individual and group interest is nothing more than joint individual interest. That individualism is an extreme that may appear to be reasonable but political realism has the following kinds of counter-claim. In the first place, as may be seen from Theory XE "Theory"  of being, a nationgroupmay be regarded to be an organism. Even if the individual is the locus of right, the individual may assign his or her right to the group; this raises the question of the status of a few individuals who do not so assign their rights even when the majority does. A calculus of individual rights may contingently if not necessarily work outin particular contextsto a national right national right may be a mechanism XE "Mechanism"  to guarantee individual right. And, what is considered to be an individual right or good may not be feasible XE "Feasibility"  in the group. If political realism encourages or permits abuse, individualism may do so as well Another kind of competition among values arises when a value appears to be reasonable but its application to alluniversalization is often held to be a requirement of values in moral systemsindividuals would be infeasible. What, for example, is the proper attitude to opportunities such as higher education XE "Education"  that promote the general interest including individual well being but cannot, perhaps, be available to all? Should economics XE "Economics"  effect what is of value and not just the degree to which a value is realized in a given society XE "Society" ? The thought may be rejected as base but is not such rejection itself a moral value? What is the real XE "Real, the"  value of a freedom such as reproductive freedom when the outcome is a population problem that limits resource availability, may be implicated in war and global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  warming, and whose long term consequences may be disastrous? Ethics and substance XE "Substance" . Although both conservative and, especially, liberal may enjoy moral purity, is not such purity an instance of the habit of substance thinking whose result is narrowness of vision and inability to resolve paradox XE "Paradox"  and conflict Another instance of the habit of substance XE "Substance"  thinking in ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  is found in ethical principles such as killing is always wrong. It is of course not the purpose of the following discussion to argue against the principle or to question its practical value. The purpose is to analyze the nature of the principle. The principle obviously does not apply to an accidental cause XE "Causation:Cause"  of death. It applies to a choice XE "Choice" , an intent to kill and a consequent act of killing. Some religions prohibit all killing including killing non-humans. Is it wrong to shoot a lion that is about to kill a human infant? Is it wrong to kill another person in self-defense when there is no other option except to allow oneself to be killed? Would it be wrong for a member of a community to kill a person who was about to kill everyone in the community including himself? If killing is said to be universally wrong, not everyone will agree. An argument from ethical principle may be made against all acts of killing even in the face of killing but, again, such arguments run against counter argument. It might be said that it is not certain that a killer was about to kill and that killing the killer was necessary to prevent killing everyone in the community; however, waiting for certain knowledge results in universal inaction. The idea of intending to kill is close to the idea of murder. Is murder invariably wrong? The intent behind definitions of murderwhich differ according to legal systemis that murder should be invariably wrong. In Anglo-American law, murder is a homicide committed intentionally, while manslaughter is homicide that is the result of recklessness or a violent outburst e.g. when provoked by the victim. Taking, intentional homicide as specifying the sense of murder, is the killing of a sleeping member of an enemy army murder? Numerous examples could be given that show, not that the idea that murder is heinous should be retracted, but that given any fixed definition XE "Definition"  of murder, there are likely to be acts that satisfy the definition of murder but not the intuition that the act, even if reprehensible, should not be regarded as murderother examples are mercy killing that is not regarded as murder in European law but is so in Anglo-American law and assisted suicide that is not regarded as murder in all jurisdictions. In conclusion, general proclamations such as all X is wrong have at least two functionsto function as prohibitive and to provide a community with a sense of security; however, to regard the proclamation itself as universal, as substance, is a categorial error in that it equates, e.g., the category of morality and a specific category X that is defined objectively and so does not contain the category of morality even if there is intent to capture moral sense Values as objects. In a previous version, ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  was treated as the most comprehensive object. The motivating idea was that except for freedom and choice XE "Choice" , there is but deterministic behavior and deterministic objects are not very interesting in their poverty of potential and variety. Although there is no reason to reject the ideas behind that treatment, it was based in the idea of an object as actual. If objects are understood to include potential, then it is not necessary to think, rather unclearly, of ethics as a more general kind of object To regard values as objects, think of their function. As choice XE "Choice"  emerges in behavior, it may have both creative and destabilizing potential and value may emerge as stabilizing. Thus values and the ability for values to emerge may be seen as self-stabilizing characteristics of systems. This does not mean that values will not promote freedom, creativity and so on for excess stability XE "Stability"  in one area or level of activity may result in stagnation and destabilizing in others. Perhaps, however, stability is not the appropriate concept. A system is in the process of realizing potential; values have emerged as conducive to that processand include morals and other stabilizing features but are not limited to these. Because context XE "Context" environmentmay change in unpredicted and perhaps unpredictable ways, values that are too determined may be destructive. Adaptability and creativity in value emerge. Even though precisely what value is an adaptation to and whether adaptation reigns absolute are not given, there is some rough objective that value emerges from and conduces to. That rough objective contains indeterminate features and therefore, value has indeterminate aspects including openness to the indeterminate which includes humordiscussed earlier as an element of intuition. As a property, though not a determinate one, value may be seen as an indeterminate object or, rather, an object with determinate and indeterminate features War and peace XE "War and peace"  In this section, descend from Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , the Object XE "Object" , and Ethical theory. First consider a modern problem and the issues that it may entail and then consider what has been learned An important modern ethical concern is that of war and peace. The concern is broader than the stated one for war and peace are related to questions of aggression and of terrorism. Additionally, an adequate treatment of war and peace requires examination of the causes of war and the probable prerequisites of peace which include the human psyche XE "Psyche"  (aggression) and social XE "Society"  behavior (especially politics XE "Politics" ,) population, and resources (especially, c. 2000, energy.) Thus, in considering war and peace a variety of ethical and other concerns are entailed and will be taken up. The discussion will attempt to illustrate ethical principle, relations among the different aspects of Ethics and relations among individual and group Morals XE "Morals"  (in the question of translation of individual attitudes into action) and among realism (in the question of definition XE "Definition"  below) and circumstance Access to resources is one (not always stated) root of war and increase of populations results in a greater need for resources. In the long term, avoiding war may be promoted by conservation and by addressing the population concern. Appropriate energy (and other resources, especially food) is also important. Energy research is probably vitalcurrent expenditures on energy development and research, however, are a fraction of the cost of access to oil (access includes war and occupation) There is a variety of lines that energy research may take. Renewable energy (solar, wind, small scale hydropower) is generally cleaner energy. A number of parts of the world have large coal reserves; research into making the use of coal clean is important (at least) because as oil becomes scarce, nations will face economic pressure to use coal. Research in using energy reserves (oil, coal, nuclear) to produce clean fuels is important (free hydrogen is not naturally occurring and requires energy to produce it and the currently practical ways that might be used to produce hydrogen for large scale production release carbon dioxide which is the greenhouse gas implicated in global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  warming.) Research in controlled nuclear fusion should receive greater emphasis. Research into use of the energy of the quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  vacuum remains in a primitive and conceptual stage and lacks any definite estimate of the practicality of the potential; it is clear, however, that the magnitude of this possible source dwarfs all conventional, renewable and nuclear sources and it is this magnitude that is a source of the potential which includes the possibility of cataclysmic destruction e.g. of the known universe Energy access indirectly affects population. While a large amount of attention is paid to oil rich nations, other nations that face a variety of severe problems including internal war (and genocide) are ignored and even apart from the obvious ethical issue, ongoing poverty may be destabilizing to politics XE "Politics"  and population. Resource and energy consumption have a variety of probable effectsdesertification and deforestation, change in atmospheric composition and, consequently, probable and possibly catastrophic climatic change. As of  DATE \@ "yyyy" 2007 many persons may object to reference to climatic change as probable. There may be two reasons to prefer reference to probability XE "Normal:Probability" ; the first is that even quantitative correlation does not imply a causal connection (and to think that the connection is necessary may ignore non-included factors that may make the situation worse than is implied by necessity i.e. a causal connection.) A second reason is that an exclusive emphasis on necessity implies that action need not be undertaken when connections are merely probable It is not clear that an adequate solution to any single issue or to each issue separately may provide an adequate response to the constellation of issues. If there is a single approach to the multi-dimensional concerns, it may lie in human awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  and will and their application; perhaps these should be regarded as equal or prior to the economic (conservation) and technological approaches What is war? What is terrorism? What is genocide? These all come under the heading of wide spread aggression and it is not clear that definitions are necessary (and, in any case, definitions can be used to put ethical concerns aside e.g. torture has been justified by claiming that prisoners taken are not prisoners of war.) Regarding war, there is a point of view called political realism XE "Political realism"  according to which morals that apply to individuals do not apply to nations and that the responsibility of a government is to further national self-interest at all costs. What justifies a war of aggressionfor whatever reason? Is there a valid point of view according to which even self-defense is unethical? Is a war to eliminate an abusive regime or a terrorist base in another nation justified? What is the moral authority of the nation? (Why should the people of New York, in the northeast US be less responsible and responsive to the people in neighboring Ontario, Canada than to the people in distant California? What has been established constitutionally XE "Constitution"  naturally carries weight but should this weight be absolute?) Does international sanction make war morally rightor merely more diplomatic? If a nation is suspected of harboring terrorist groups or stockpiling instruments of war and destruction, must certainty of evidence be necessary for invasion? When does evidence justify invasion? It must be asked that since moral concerns seem to be routinely ignored, what the Value XE "Value"  of moral considerations may be. A proper response includes that the presence of morals cannot be expected to be altogether effective but have some direct effect (on decisions) and indirect effect (on the intent to do Good XE "Good, the" ;) in addition to enquiring of the efficacy of morals already in place, it is also significant to reflect on the possible outcomes of an absence of morals. In the absence of a moral sense (or in its exclusion XE "Exclusion"  by apathy, by disregarding the humanity of certain populations, or by routine denial of human rights concerns in government) formal considerations of morals are likely to have little effect They would like to suggest that war is invariably wrong (not right.) There are, however, two hesitations. The first concerns self-defenseis self-defense wrong? Is self-defense war? The questions have practical and symbolic aspects in addition to the obviously moral aspect and it is perhaps more important to remain aware of the concerns than to give answersperhaps such awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  will be more instrumental toward good than the provision of answers. The second concerns their awareness of the limits of their thought and their emotional being and their values; this admission, they hope, may encourage into negotiation those who feel that their positions are irrevocable The following, then, are morally important. First, cultivating and sustaining moral intuition; and addressing institutions that may suppress or avoid it including education XE "Education" , philosophy, and rational or systematic ethics XE "Morals:Ethics" . Moral intuition should be cultivated so as to include questions of feasibility XE "Feasibility" . Second, translating individual attitudes into (large scale) group attitudes and action. A necessary preliminary to action is the careful and open acquisition and examination of situation-specific information. Action XE "Action"  itself should (generally) begin with diplomacy and the least harmful means. Sanctions are not intrinsically clean and result in enormous but often invisible hardship and suffering. These are causally prior (to the specific moral concerns) and their cultivation is likely to encourage ethical Understanding XE "Understanding"  and attention to the specific concerns Related thoughts appear in the later section Faith XE "Faith"  What has been learned. This chapter considered a range ofmodernmoral concerns regarding quality of life XE "Life"  and has shown interaction or non-independence of the issues; it suggested the virtues of holism and rejecting substance XE "Substance"  thinking. Expectation that solutions are guaranteedsubstancegenerates nihilism and inaction. There was consideration of principles of solution, issues of inertia, culture, respect, communication, dependence on technology, adequate vs. advanced technology and solutions and solution patchworks Also consideredthe separation of pure and applied ethics XE "Morals:Ethics" the idea that ethical principles can stand altogether in the abstract e.g. that there is an absolute distinction to be made between deontological and teleological ethics. It is not clear that there should be a separation of pure and applied ethics War and peace XE "War and peace"  emphasized the incomplete separability of ethical concerns from economic, political and other institutional issuesin both conceptual and practical terms Civilization and history XE "History"  The present chapter Civilization and history XE "History"  is abbreviated from a previous version. The brief version below may stand alone and have sense on account of foregoing developments that are refined since previous versions Civilization is the universal matrix of beings with cognitive and affective forms of sentience XE "Mind:Sentience"  (it has been seen that an absence of free and bound forms of cognition XE "Cognition" -emotion XE "Emotion"  is severely limiting on possibilitypotentialand empathy) History XE "History"  is a reconstructed narrative of civilization XE "Civilization" . The form of narrative may be literary, artistic, dramatic History is a form of connection among the matrix The realism of the preceding ideal thoughts is made possible and their realization shown necessary by Theory XE "Theory"  of being The highest ideal The present chapter The highest ideal is abbreviated from a previous version. The brief version below may stand alone and have sense on account of foregoing developments that are refined since previous versions A first source of possible ideals is tradition; every ideal may be questioned; ideals may be in conflict A highest ideal includes discovery of idealsof what the highest ideal XE "Highest ideal, the"  may be; this idea makes a return to idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism"  possible and consistent with death and conflict of ideals; and in, in giving a process character to ideals, makes idealism consistent with practical realism A search for the real XE "Real, the" -ideal may be conceived as a journey XE "Journey" ; this journey isincludes and has motive insearch for that ideal Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  gives sense and Human Being XE "Being"  gives initial realism, grounding and flesh to this search Faith XE "Faith"  The focus in this chapter is Faith XE "Faith" , religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and related topics Significance of faith. One characteristic of journey XE "Journey"  as conceived here is that aims or goals may arise and change in response to events, intuition and discovery and that aims are not invariably followedtimes of aimlessness, times of enjoyment in aimlessness, and times of intuition may occur in relation to a journey and any of its aims A journey XE "Journey"  overlaps life XE "Life" is not thought of as an activity that is distinct from life Knowledgecertain or otherwisemay be an aim but is not the aim. Knowledge is one means but not the only means Given a situation, a place in a journey XE "Journey"  where or when action should require basis in uncertain knowledge a question ariseswhat is the appropriate attitude to uncertain knowledge when it is an instrument? One appropriate attitude is, of course, doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" . There may, however, be times when belief, assumption or faith are appropriate. In saying this it is not implied that if faith is adopted, faith must remain evermore. Sequential or superimposed faith and doubt XE "Faith:Faith and doubt"  may be appropriate. Reliance on intuition may be appropriate at times and the criteria for attitude to be adopted may also be formal and certain or based in faith and intuition and be uncertain It may be thought that, except in religion XE "Faith:Religion" , occasions for faith are uncommon. It is a fact, however, that, from strict standards of certainty, so much of common knowledge is uncertain that a common attitude to such knowledge of taking it to be the case must be described as an attitude of faith. It is quite the norm for the members of a society XE "Society"  to take its culture as giveneven though from the perspective XE "Perspective"  of another society that culture contains obvious error or from the perspective of the same society over time its culture is changing. And, while some apparent error and change may be due to factors of cultural relativism, others are clearly objective. How can that be said? A clear example concerns scientific revolutions. While some thinkers such as Thomas Kuhn XE "Kuhn, Thomas"  might not have described quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  mechanics as showing XE "Proof:Showing"  error in the classical theory that attitude may be seen as mistaken or, to allow some equivocation, having a mistaken quality. That there is some objective knowledge would admitted by anyone who claims that there is no objective knowledge in science XE "Science" . To dispute anythingeven objectivity XE "Objectivity" is to assert (some kind of) objectivity. The claim here, is not that there is no error in quantum theory but that it eliminates an entire domain of error but contains no error not contained in the classical theoryfurther this is known by direct and not merely by pragmatic means (of course, experiment XE "Experiment"  and reasons do not lie outside the domain of what is pragmatic and, of course, the statement made suppresses a variety of subtleties that may give it some doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" ) While mathematics XE "Mathematics"  is often thought to be the most certain of the sciencessee Objects XE "Object"  and Logic XE "Logic"  and Meaning XE "Meaning"  on the question of whether mathematics is a science XE "Science" the heart of mathematics, especially for non-finite systems, contains the possibility of paradox XE "Paradox" . To eliminate all mathematics that may harbor paradox is to eliminate rich and fertile areas of thought. Some mathematicians and some traditional views on the nature avoid such areas of mathematics while, perhaps more commonly, other mathematicians prefer to allow work in areas of potential paradox. Precisely what is the attitude of the mathematicians to in the conduct of mathematical thought? It is clear that on some occasions that include fertile development and in some sense, faith is presenteven if its presence is only implicit A journey XE "Journey"  in or into being cannot invariably have certainty. It must therefore have the characteristics of doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  and of faithsuperposed and in sequence that may be called doubt-faith. The core ideas of the Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  of this narrative went through a long period of intuitive development regarding even the fundamental principle was characterized by doubt-faith in its application to the local world before emergence of its certain and universal form. The period of doubt-faith appears to have been essential even though, perhaps, a sufficiently great intellect may have proceeded directly with pure rationalityeven such an intellect, however, should, it would seem, have required binding of intellect and feeling XE "Feeling"  as shown in Human being XE "Human Being" . It also appears that a continuation of the present journey into phases of transformation XE "Transformation"  and further discovery shall require or profit from doubt-faithat least as a phase To have a goal or ambition, especially a driving one, and yet to allow life XE "Life"  and times of enjoyment inat least partialaimlessness is a kind of faith. It is a very simple faithbeing-in-the world is enough. An example ofnot intended at allproductivity of this simple faith occurs in the development of the theory of objects recounted in Objects XE "Object" . The subject of Objects is important in the history XE "History"  of thought but was not felt to be especially significant to the journey XE "Journey" . Still, reflection on objects was interestingespecially the distinction of the concrete and the abstract. What is an abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" ? Surely, if there are abstract objects, the cosmology could not be considered complete without their inclusion. Yet, if the status of abstract objects is not transparent, the cosmology could not be considered complete with inclusion. There followed experiments with many conceptions of the abstract object till, finally, inspired by the deepening understanding of Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , especially that any consistent concept has an object, it was realized that there is no metaphysicalrealdistinction between the abstract and the particular or concrete. Things studied from the object side are regarded as concrete; those things, whole or partial, studied from the concept side are abstract; studies such as theoretical physics straddle the concrete and the abstract. That the distinction is absolute is based in a conflation of approach to study with metaphysical kind Of course, there may be practical distinctions: a rock is the object of the idea of a rock and the rock may be touched and seen; what and where is the object of the number 1 and can that object be touched or seen? There are of course many ways that 1 can correspond to an object and one is that 1 refers to all unary collectionsthe collection of unary collections. In this sense 1 the concept is either an idea or a symbol XE "Symbol"  that is part of a symbolic system and 1 the object is the collection just mentioned. From this vantage point the theory of numbers could be studied empirically; however, a much more powerful mathematical system emerges if the empirical studyfrom the object sideis jettisoned soon after its establishment and the study is continued from the concept sidein symbolic terms. Where is the object 1? The question is not particularly relevant or interesting but, if you wish, talking from the object side some answer such as everywhere or no-particular-where may be given. It is crucial, however, that a sourceif not the sourceof paradox XE "Paradox"  is lack of reference. It does not follow, though, that paradox is best eliminated by reintroducing reference although it may be so eliminated by reference or by surrogate reference i.e. reference to a transparent model From this outcome of a rather serendipitous and even artificial engagement with the theory of objects, there emerged at once a definite and final understanding of the abstract and the concretefinal because of the basis in the ultimate metaphysics. At once there wasfurther and essentialillumination of the object itself, of mathematics XE "Mathematics"  and science XE "Science" , of logic XE "Logic"  and paradox XE "Paradox" , of knowledgean illumination that remains, still, on the periphery of a journey XE "Journey"  Aims of this chapter. (1) To examine a concept of faith appropriate to the journey XE "Journey" . (2) To study faith and religion XE "Faith:Religion"  in generalthough briefly. The approach in this study shall follow the fertile template already established: interactive study of necessary truth XE "Truth" especially from Theory XE "Theory"  of beingand a restricted context XE "Context" traditional religion and faith and their possibilities. (3) To reflect on the place of religion in the modern world and on the possibilities of religion Meanings of faith. The discussion above reveals a core concept of faith: faith is that attitude toward being-in-the-world that is most productive of being. A variety of terms may be substituted for the final occurrence of being in the previous sentencebeing-in-the-moment, action, knowledge, ends These provide application of the concept of faith. Knowledge emphasizes faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  to the object; trustworthiness requires faithfulness to persons; commitment XE "Commitment"  requires faithfulness to ends (given the first meaning of faith these applications are of course metaphorical.) A second connotation XE "Meaning:Connotation"  of faith is that of religious faith. It is not true that all religions require faith; Buddhism, in its original form, focuses on a theme of what is important in life XE "Life" , on a way to achieve that end and, to that end, rejects any importance of metaphysics or religious faith. In Christianity, faith and reason have distinct and conflicted rolesand the theological and psychological roles of faith appear to be distinct; in terms of its own system or metaphysics faith has a distinctive role. Its theological role or aim stems from the conflict that arises when a metaphysical system is upheld that in day-to-day life wouldat leaststretch credulity. The psychological role includes the theological intent to resolve conflict but this may be seen as preliminary to the main psychological rolethat of regarding the metaphysical system surrounding the biblical Jesus as transcendent truth XE "Truth"  Although the two connotations of faith have clear connectionelse they would be distinct denotations i.e. distinct words with the same signthe religious connotation XE "Meaning:Connotation"  is an extreme version of the core meaning of this discussion The significance of religious faith receives illumination from comparison of the beliefs of hunter-gatherer with those of agricultural societies. The hunter-gatherers have been thought of as nomadic because they may have a pattern XE "Pattern" typically annualof following migrating animals, other resources, kinder climatic environments during the harsher seasons and so on. Agriculture made it possible to live in one place. However, as pointed out e.g. in The Other Side of Eden published by Hugh Brody, 2000, agriculture makes it possible and indeed necessary for many members of agriculture based societies to go where work is available. In such societies, a fraction of the population is occupied in production of food, food is obtained in exchange for money, and money is obtained through work. In the modern world the fraction of the population involved in production of food is small and even this fraction has to move in response to changing science XE "Science" , technology and economics XE "Economics" . Thus it is, as Brody narrates, that the nomadic hunter-gatherers have a true sense of place while we, in what we call advanced societies are uprooted and encourage uprooting in unpredicted patterns. These distinctions are reflected in systems of belief. The belief systems of the nomads relate to their place, their practices, their physical needsand it is natural that the same system of belief should address the physical and the spiritual XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  and, perhaps, to not distinguish natural and spiritual. In our world, there is no fixed place, there are no established economic practices in the sense that economic progress is relentless, and work has become disconnected from need. Physical and natural belief, i.e. science, is belief that is necessary for practice. It is of course not being said that science is mere belief. It seems that since the natural system of belief has become disconnected from place and psyche XE "Psyche" , it may be inadequate to address any need of spirit. Thus religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and science, faith and secular affairs become distinctnot just because science shows up religion but also because science is detached from psychological need (science may of course substitute for formal religion but it is to be expected that it will be unsatisfying for manybecause of its conceptual remoteness and because it may be found barren of spirit or psyche.) This is of course not regarded as truth XE "Truth"  of religion just as the role of science in economic activity does not establish its truthunless a pragmatic measure of truth is employed and that could arguably establish some truth for even an absurd faith. Since faith becomes detached from place it becomes an occasion for speculation to lose its empirical side, to flower as an instrument of the spiritand to be subject to varieties of abuse primary among which is the abandonment of groundingtruth of connection to environment if not truth of spirit or psychethat may permit and promote other kinds of abuse. The modern philosopher and theologian does not even use the term religion for the faith systems of the hunter-gatherer yet those faiths are closer to the fundamental and core meaning of faith of this narrative Post-critical faith. Before doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  there is innocence which may be called nave faith. To describe such faith as nave is not altogether accurate. While doubt has functions it is not invariably productive. Human being XE "Human Being"  has the faculty of doubt but this is not true of all animal being or of human being in all stages of development or, constitutively of all persons. For many, especially the critically inclined, doubt destroys nave faithor questions it which may be a destruction of navet. What is a post-critical faith that has the same quality of trust that marks nave faith? Is there such a trusting post-critical faith? Perhaps one of the functions of religion XE "Faith:Religion"  may be to support post-critical faitheven though religion is often pre-critical. If, however, the world view of a religion is not one that strains credulity and is at least reasonable, such a religion may support a post-critical faith with trust-in-the-world. Perhaps Buddhism is such a faith sincein its original formit rejects an elaborate world view or metaphysics. Perhaps, also, the Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  founded in the metaphysics of immanence may provide the framework for such a faith. Still, it may also appear that post-critical faith is a not altogether well founded concept and it may be that such faith is a function of personality XE "Personality"  rather than any post-critical integration XE "Integration" . This appears to be the case in their attitude to the world during the developments of this narrative. More accurately, perhaps, such faith may be a function of both personality and attitude toward criticisme.g. that despite the significance of criticism its true function is not destruction, nihilism or deconstruction which are intermediate but the service of a creative function whether in knowledge or, especially when knowledge does not appear to be possible, transformation XE "Transformation"  Concepts of religion XE "Faith:Religion" . At the outset, it is important to distinguish two motives to clarifying the concept of religion. One motive is to define and understand religion as it has occurred and as it exists. In light of this motive the study of religion would be empirical but of course not merely empirical because the merely empirical would not provide a concept of religionand a concept is essential to understanding and this is inherent in the very meaning of concept. It is necessary to note of course that even if the study of religion were to be merely empirical, it would be impossible to avoid an at least intuitive concept of religion without which there would be no distinguishing what is religion and what is not and the merely empirical student of religion would have no reason to not study a cobbler making shoes or to not study the peeling of potatoes in his or pursuit of the study of religion and a study that took no account of what happens in churches, what is written in the Bible XE "Scripture, reference to traditional"  and other religious texts, of what is being done in prayer or even what is prayer, should count to the humble empiricist as a study of religion. The merely empiricalaltogether non-conceptualstudent of religion would do a random walkthinkin concept-space XE "Time and space:Space" . It is therefore essential that any study of actual religion and what is characteristic of actual religions must have a conceptual side as well as an empirical side. Along these lines definitions of religion may be found such as human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, spiritual XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual" , or divine (Encyclopedia Britannica) or A religion is a set of beliefs and practices generally held by a community, involving adherence to codified beliefs and rituals and study of ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history XE "History" , and mythology, as well as personal faith and mystic experience and All patriarchal religions present a common quality the division of the world in two comprehensive domains, one sacred, the other profane (Wikipedia.) There is no need to think of such definitions as definitivethey are presented as specimens of definition XE "Definition" . They do, however, point to beliefs and practices, and they do emphasize the division of the sacred and the profanewhich absolute division is missing in the faith systems of the hunter-gatherers A second motive to the study of religion XE "Faith:Religion"  is to consider its potential and possibilities. Because of the naturally intense politicizing of actual religion, its characterizationespecially modern characterizations, whether from within or otherwise, should be suspect in relation to the possibilities of religion. If modern science XE "Science"  were the only true knowledge, then surely one possibility for religion would be religion is science and then the concept of religion might be, also, religion is science. However, modern science, even from its own point of view, cannot be regarded as the only true knowledge. Additionally, knowledge is not the only function of religion; expression is an important function of the human psyche XE "Psyche"  and the scriptures would haveafunction, if not as knowledge, then as expression of spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  (psyche.) Even in the secular tradition and even excepting art, literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , drama, poetry, myth XE "Fiction:Myth"  and so on as knowledge, science is not generally regarded as the only true knowledge. Therefore, even in the best secular and modern tradition, there is a place for some concept of religion. The individual who has noexplicitreligion in the modern world is an entirely understandable phenomenon but if she or he further declares a poverty of spirit and simultaneously declares that, from science and reason, no religion except science is possible, he or she has misunderstood the nature of science and of religion. The most important consideration is left for lastin Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  it has been shown that this cosmos is a speck in terms of duration, extension and variety and that the science of this cosmos is likewise but a speck in relation to the possibilities of knowledge of being What does this second motivation imply for a concept of religion XE "Faith:Religion" ? Such a concept of religion may be divorced from the empirical sidefrom the external form of religious practicebut could hardly have meaning if disconnected from the related concept. From the first concept it may be noted that religion is not merely about knowledge but it is also about ritual, about morals, about binding community through shared belief and enterprise, about distinguishing distinct communities through distinct belief and practice and so on. And, in so far as it is about knowledge it is not only about our common knowledge but it is also about doubting that secular knowledge encompasses all of being. On common secular belief, there is nothing beyond death, therefore no one has survived death therefore there can be no empirical knowledge of beyond death. Therefore, the thought that the individual does not survive death is not an empirical statement even on secularism XE "Secularism"  one of whose cornerstones is that knowledge has an empirical side. Common sense makes it clear that a dead body is dead but neither common sense nor science XE "Science"  nor reason require that the person should not live again in some form on some other distant planet. (Do they explain how the individual came to be on this planet? They cannot for relative to science today and secular common sense, individual existence XE "Existence"  on this planet, even the entire universe, are mere facts.) Of course of another life XE "Life"  is not proved by the foregoing argument which does not even give another life meaningit does not, for example, at all explain how that life might be connected to this. Religious texts (rising from the dead identity of Atman XE "Atman"  and Brahman XE "Brahman" ) may, even when empirical content is discounted, be seen as questioning the natureof the conceptof death. Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  has, in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" , and Cosmology XE "Cosmology" , shown the necessity of a reality infinitely larger, deeper and more varied than that of this cosmological system and, in the clarification of the nature of Identity XE "Identity" , shown the meaning, significance and reality of the larger universe to the individual The discussion suggests the following conceptreligion XE "Faith:Religion"  is knowledge and negotiation of the entire universe by the entire individual in all its faculties and modes of being. Here, though, individual could be person, or society XE "Society" , or even, e.g., life XE "Life"  on earth. There is a definite distinction from other practices such as empirically oriented science XE "Science"  which is restricted in its domain of study and its method. Why continue to use the word religion? It is not necessary to do so and it may be problematic on account of the negative connotations of the word. Use of the word may, however, provide continuity and derive power XE "Power"  from any positive connotation XE "Meaning:Connotation"  and from the influence XE "Influence"  of religion An ideal religion XE "Faith:Religion" . The Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  and Human World provide a framework and some elaboration for religion in this conception. Religions apparently may incorporate a world view, a metaphysics, and a cosmology and a genesisIn the beginning; a context XE "Context"  or history XE "History" including myth XE "Fiction:Myth" ; a moral code. Although these aspects may not be essential, the narrative has provided a foundation and framework for these aspects of religion. The framework is not necessarily completesome version of history might have a place; some aspects of religion such as worship have not been mentioned. If such elements were to be incorporated, their form might be quite different from their traditional forms. Questions such as are we constructing religion as religion or are we forging something organic and rooted and perhaps vaguely related to the idea of religion and perhaps what is the value of the enterprise as enterprise? may be considered. The present narrative arose from a life XE "Life"  and not from a plan to live or write about a journey XE "Journey" . The question here being asked is whether religionany aspect of cultureshould arise organically or by design. But is that a question to be askedculture arises the way it arises whether that way be real or artificial, organicfrom the soil, so to speakor designed or some combination of these ways in sequence or superposed upon one another and is there not inevitably something artificial about culturethe artifice of culture. Consider for example a dead language XE "Language"  suchLatinsomeone wishes to revive it. What kind of sense does that makeis not the emergence of language an organic affair or at least partially organic? Even when a conqueror imposes his or her language it is, at least, organically interwoven into the fabric of the source culture. Religion, however is not dead, some will sayand for them, is not their religion already organic? Perhaps not; perhaps it has degenerated and is held as a social XE "Society"  or political instrument but not as an instrument of spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  (psyche XE "Psyche" .) For others, religion is deadbut for some of them there may be a desire for some kind of religion. And, still, for those who have no such desire, it is not necessarily true that there is no spark that may light fire. Perhaps the organic / non-organic question is not organic Finally there is the question of formwhat literary, artistic, dramatic as well as political and economic form might an ideal religion take? These are thoughts that the next author of faith may have already transcended! Ideal religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and political-economic form? Does that not seem rather contradictory? Is it not debasing to the idea of religion? Butwhy should it be debasing? Are we so sensitive that realism is debasing? Is not the idea of debasement an illicit appeal to privilegebecause my faith is so sacred, you dare not corrupt its purity? It is understandable that a person should so object, but, in fact, is the sacred distinct from the profane and would not the sacred-profane give meaning to the profane and grounding to the sacred? What is more, recall from Social World, the inseparability of culture, morals, politics XE "Politics"  and economics XE "Economics" why, in this light, should there be a separation of the ideal and thesocial XE "Society"  and culturalreal Functions and significance of religion XE "Faith:Religion" . Any analysis or evaluation of an institution may be confused by two factors. The first is that although in concept, function and institution may have perfect correspondence, in the world there tends to beand to some extent there must bemultiplicity of function in what may be thought or definede.g. in a constitution XE "Constitution" to be an institution with a single function. The second factor, not fully distinct from the first, concerns corruption, abuse and decay. The pure minded may object to any encroachment of function, any corruption abuse or decay. The problem is especially significant for religion since it is supposed to be pure. It may at once be said that a religious institution must have an economic base and cannot invariably continue to exist without some political action. The pure minded may then insistno more than is necessary; and the economics XE "Economics"  and the politics XE "Politics"  must be pure. Perhaps, given human nature, some corruption is to be tolerated but it should not be widespread and it should not negate the primary function. Should a religious institution engage in economic activity for profit; should it engage in political activity toward general political ends? When does it become an institution of religion only in name? These questions are difficult and are confused by issues of purity (no cross function) and the existence XE "Existence"  of answers written in law and practice The functions of religion XE "Faith:Religion"  may be described as meaning and non-meaning. The non-meaning function XE "Meaning function of an article of faith or religion" s include social XE "Society"  identity and differencebonding XE "Bonding"  and exclusion XE "Exclusion" . Weston La Barre, The Origins Of Religion: The Ghost Dance, 1970, suggests that, via study of the transformations in Native American religion of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, all religion is a response to a crisis of the cultural system. A religious institution may have any cultural functionpolitical, economic, artisticbut does that make such function religious? Commonly we think not but why? Here, it is clear that sense and reference are altogether stabilized only if one is fixed; it is not, however, suggested that complete stabilization is functional. Practically, there appear to be two realmssacred and profane and the former is the domain of religion. Perhaps, though it is the sometimes apparently bizarrethe straining of credulitymetaphysics of some religions that defines separate domains. If the sacred and the profane are both true can a concept make them separatethat is obviously not given. At this point in history XE "History" , in the western world, in part from the history to avoid persecution and in part because religion has become irrelevant, the sacred is separate from the profane. This is not the universal case even today and it does not make it universally true. If the faithful would seek truth XE "Truth"  over adherence, the sacred might be found to intersect the profanemight, as is sometimes thought necessarybe found identical The meaning function XE "Meaning function of an article of faith or religion" s of religion XE "Faith:Religion"  are tied to psychology XE "Psychology"  on the side of the sacred and spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  (psyche XE "Psyche" .) The spirit is sometimes thought to be a supersensible and transcendent realm. Even though such things are found in scripture and belief, they may be regarded as metaphorical for there is more in heaven and earth than in your philosophy. Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  shows the actuality of remote realms on which science XE "Science"  and common sense cast doubt XE "Faith:Doubt" all actual realms are in the universe; however there is no support from the theory for the exclusive character of belief. Why then do religions continue on? Reasons are complex no doubt. First, perhaps, is the non-literal XE "Literal"  function of meaning. Rising from the dead questions the common concept of death; and so on; religion is an expression of awe, of mystery, of the sense of the miraculous. In such functions the meaning is not the literal one even though the literal may be instrumental. Second, the crossover of meaning and non-meaning function; that a belief strains belief makes it especially bindinghow binding, for example, is the belief that bananas are yellow? Imagine yellow-banana-ism versus spotted-banana-ism as basis of a cultural schism. Third, the political dimension of faith stabilizes the institution; this is seen in fundamentalist Christianity and Islam and perhaps also in Hinduism in India. Fourthinstitutions are self-perpetuating In any interpretation of an institution, the reigning world viewnot necessarily univalentis likely to have significant influence XE "Influence" . In the modern world, one widespread view, the one in which the world is much as described in science XE "Science" , that the world views as described in the major religions are, mostly, myth XE "Fiction:Myth"  and legend XE "Fiction:Legend"  that have function but not literal XE "Literal"  function, and the sacred and the spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  have psychological impact but are devoid of literal significance and the most profound human values are mundane i.e. of the profane world. Against such a view, the metaphysical content of the major religions is, in general, bound to appear, not merely wrong, but absurd. I.e. such metaphysics are not only non-literal but are necessarily non-literal. This view must be widespread among those who do not have fundamentalist faith and since this view is especially common among the educated, the literate and the academic, an influential modern default view is that the meaning and functions of religion XE "Faith:Religion" whether valuable or notlie in the domain of psyche XE "Psyche"  and that science and the senses are the primary source of literal knowledge i.e. knowledge of the mundane or profane. Theory XE "Theory"  of being has shown (1) that that the domain of the universethis worldrevealed by the modern practice of science, the senses, and secular humanism is an infinitesimal speck in the entire universe, (2) that while the myth-like metaphysics of so many religions may and almost certainly do not hold in this world, they are not absurd when seen against the background of the infinite variety of the universe. Therefore, there is a place for religion and religious meaning that satisfies both literal and universal function that is not restricted to science and the senses. Whether such a development will occur in our world, what form it might take and what value it may have are open questions and opportunities. It appears that an original function of religion was an opposition to intolerant and often abusive conservatism. Today, however, the strength of religious belief has a reactionary element. For religion to have the greatest available meaningliteral and otherwiseit shall neither react nor bow to science but shall shed its own limits as well as those of modern empirical and theoretical science Religion XE "Faith:Religion"  in the modern world. The purpose of this discussion is to attempt a study of the role that religion currently plays in societies and in global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  politics XE "Politics" . Since the discussion is not, here, an end in itself and since religion in the modern world has received attention in previous paragraphs, in this version of the narrative it will be extremely brief What attitude may be taken by individuals and governments who see religionsparticular religions or religion XE "Faith:Religion"  in generalas archaic andor destructive? One attitude is to declare anger and war! At one time in history XE "History"  this was politically acceptable; it is no longer dead. The standard secular western view is that this approach is unacceptable. There is a real possibility that the twenty first century may move in the direction of conflict. However, neither standard views nor fact determine truth XE "Truth" . Two differences between present and past are political and military. Democracy reduces the distance between decision makers and the affected and thus decision makers are closerif only for the need for popularityto suffering the consequences of decisions (this trend may be in reversal.) Second, the military machine makes the consequences of war terrible. These facts confuse any truth It is now assumed that force is unacceptable as a solution to ideological difference. Why is it an assumption? Although physical conflict entails death and suffering, the final outcome has often been good. There is a principle that is against force and this principle is taken as faith rather than absolute fact. Why is the assumption madeperhaps because it is desired to make it, perhaps because of the pressure of peers, perhaps out of self-interest Andperhapsan assumption that is notcannot bequestioned lacks strength Another attitude is to question assumptions. The present narrative has given strong reason to question many modern secular assumptions. As a result of such questioning, even if there is not acceptance there may be a softening of stance in relation to institutionalized religion XE "Faith:Religion" . Further, it is real that, regardless of ideology, religion is apparently and into the immediately foreseeable future here to stay It may appear eminently reasonable, especially from what has been learned 2003present, that a political attitude for the future should include tolerance and dialogue (among many other elements) The possibilities for religion XE "Faith:Religion"  and faith. Is there any valid possibility for the future? This question has been addressed in previous paragraphsespecially those under An ideal religion. It appears, they think, that what is often taken for wisdom and knowledge regarding an ideal is based on conditions in the past and present that may or may not hold in the future. Looking at past and present, and the foregoing arguments, cases may be made for the desirability and undesirability of some religion. The argument made here, both in logic XE "Logic"  and intent, is to dispose viewpoints toward desirability but admits both unknowns and an irreversible aspect in history XE "History" . However, irreversibility, even when it obtains, can be overemphasized for it wouldperhapsnot be irreversibility regarding religion as religion but form of religion. Here, again, Theory XE "Theory"  of being has strong significance. Why is religion here emphasized? First, in the interest of truth XE "Truth" there is a realm of the sacred intuited in art, literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  and faith, in nature and shown in Theory of being which also shows its fine weave with the real XE "Real, the" m of the profane or the secular. Second, perhaps as balance to a secular view that is empty in the direction of the actual and which therefore does not address truth and a need for truth. What will happen? No speculation or commitment XE "Commitment"  is made, no guarantee would have sense, no name, no clear sensereligionor objectinstitutiongiven to an outcome. There is, however, for a civilization XE "Civilization"  that has an immense economic form but has lost direction and for the creative power XE "Power"  of some perhaps yet unrecognized persons a clear occasion for great endeavor Part II JOURNEY The focus of this partJourney XE "Journey" is transformation XE "Transformation" . It remains in process and includes provisional concepts and practice (progress) In this version of the narrative, this part serves as rough guide and working blueprint and is therefore confined to description of essentials Details that would detract from the blueprint function may be found in the HYPERLINK "framesversions/Journey%20in%20Being-New%20World-frames.html"2006 version The idea of a journey XE "Journey"  An individual journey XE "Journey"  The ideas and transformations described in this narrative are part of an individual journey XE "Journey" . The word journey is applicable in the following ways. In the beginning there was a sense of adventureof experience and discovery amid the wonder and magnitude of beingbut no definite or fixed or single way or goal. Early ambitions were neither specific nor articulated. There were many paths, some accidental, some imposed by society XE "Society" , some selected for enjoyment rather than some specific outcome, others selected for some practical need or occasion rather than an ideal. Some central interests were in ideas, in education XE "Education" , in travel and in nature, in people and in knowing and understanding people. Some paths faded as interest waned or another opportunity emerged. Over time, a picture of the universe was developedwas revealed as much as it was built up. A journey in ideas was supplemented by transformation XE "Transformation" transformation of being, form and identity. As awareness XE "Consciousness:Awareness"  of being grew to match initial idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism" , the vague ambitions of earlier years were transformed into definite formand this was made possible by the understanding of the universe of being that had emerged Ambition Early ambition was diffuse and affective. The ideas outlined in Foundation XE "Foundation"  were instrumental in the emergence of an articulated ambitionto know and realize all being. The Theories of being and of identity show the possibility of achieving this ambition. Still, a better statement might be that the ambition is to be in a process of knowing and realizing all being in the expression, at least initially, of individual interest and while acknowledge concerns of feasibility XE "Feasibility"  and desirability or morals It is very pertinent to recall that though there is some concept of feasibility XE "Feasibility"  and of desirability, the concepts may be quite rough. It is even more significant that the present apprehension of what that final feasibility and final ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  may be is seen only as a dim apparition Journey XE "Journey"  in being The process of beingbeing-in-timehas been called becoming. Becoming suggests some vague uniform process from formlessness to form and perhaps from being formed into formlessness. But every individual journey XE "Journey"  in all its ways and details and whether finite or without contingent XE "Contingent"  limitas revealed in the discussion of identitylies within being (becoming.) Journey is a more colorful and more revealing term to describe formation and un-formation. The Journey of being may be seen as the interacting sum of individual journeysin their finite aspectwhich, again, as seen in theory of identity, merge into one stream, one journey, one form. Journey in being applies equally to the story XE "Fiction:Story"  of an individual growing into and out of universal being as it does to the story of the universe in its transformations through void and manifestation and its myriad constituent and interwoven streams and individuals Narrative The narrative has a number of functions. In being written down, the story XE "Fiction:Story"  serves as a blueprint for a journey XE "Journey" . More accurately, there is an ongoing interaction between narrative and journey with narrative giving definite form to outer journey and inner narrative. In being written down, the definite form of the narrative provides something substantialsomething that, in its successive versions, shows definite movement and something that in its definiteness provides a form that may be subject to doubt XE "Faith:Doubt"  and criticism. A second function of the narrative is to share the ideas one of whose outcomes is useful criticism. Sharing is more than publication, appreciation and criticism. It is a form of invitation, one way to weave together the individual streams Ideas Introduction Aims. (1) Journey XE "Journey"  in ideas. (2) Foundation XE "Foundation" whatever foundation in ideas, for transformation XE "Transformation"  in being and identity may arise or has arisen along the way. (3) Illustration and elaboration of ideas from Foundation. (4) Contribution to thought Principles of thought XE "Thought, principles of"  and action Reflexivity XE "Reflexivity" the generalized principle or system of principles is not a method but a practice that is conducive to discoveryto originality XE "Originality - creative power in being and mind" , comprehensiveness and validity of thought. A common idea of reflexivity is that a critical theory or system should satisfy its own criteria. Here, a generalized idea is that of cross-interaction among all elements and levels of discovery-action and knowledge-beingand at any point or occasion that is opportune. Specifically, principles arise in practice and remain or should remain open to revaluation in practiceprinciples are not in another category than practice. The interaction of principles and practice is not merely a suggestive principle and is seen most clearly in Logic XE "Logic" . Elaboration and examples. Interaction and interaction of criticism and imagination or construction in thought, action and transformation XE "Transformation" e.g. criticism of criticism, criticism and construction rather than an either-or attitude, construction or imagination applied to critical approaches and philosophies, thought and action (experiment XE "Experiment" .) Interaction of knowledgee.g. the disciplinesand thought, of principles and applications, of sense and reference or concept and object, of psyche XE "Psyche"  and its elements, of life XE "Life"  and ideas, commitment XE "Commitment"  to goals and projects and spontaneity of directioneven dissipation, of seriousness and light, of institution and occasion Sources. Constructionlist (literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  and conversation, imagination, reflex;) concept formation (similarity and difference,) and Logic XE "Logic"  applied to construction. CriticismLogic (literature and conversation, imagination, reflex,) and construction applied to Criticism. Construction and criticism may both involve experiment XE "Experiment"  in thought and action Method. In contrast to principles, method establishes validity and has the following components. Method, too, is not in another category than practice. The given character of being and experience. Necessary XE "Modality:Necessity"  objectsexperience and its forms; existence XE "Existence"  and nature of all, distinction, part, complement and void: universe or all being, temporal and spatial distinction, part or domain of the universe, complement of a domain relative to the universe and voidthe complement of the universe relative to itself. Logical consequences of from the nature of the necessary objects. Normal XE "Normal"  objectsthis cosmological system, forms of experience as objects, the disciplines. Logical consequences from necessary and normal objects, their normal or probable character in this or any given cosmology, their necessary character in some cosmology. For examples see Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  and Human World Philosophy XE "Philosophy"  and metaphysics The objective of this chapter is to elucidate the nature of philosophy and metaphysics in view of the developments of Foundation XE "Foundation" . In pursuit of this goal some preliminary reflections on the nature of philosophy will be useful. In view of earlier discussions on elucidating the meaning of some area of human activity such as metaphysics or logic XE "Logic"  as well as the discussions of meaning itself, it may be anticipated that it will be useful to initially enhance the question What is philosophy? by a second question What is the meaning of the question What is philosophy?? This question may take the following form Approaches to answering the question What is philosophy? A first approach is to ask what has been done under the label philosophy from its beginnings to the present time. This would not be a simple matter of reading through the great works or through histories of philosophy for the available literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  is influenced by selection and interpretation. Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  is considered to be a discipline within philosophy. However not all philosophical concerns have the breadth and ultimate interest that has characterized metaphysics. One aspect of a characterization of philosophy is that, at least in its beginnings, it encompassed all academic disciplines; later, in the modern era, the sciences broke away from philosophy. The reasons for these breaks included that the subject matter of the disciplines became definite as the disciplines acquired an empirical base and as the concepts acquired definite character. Thus what is left to philosophy after the separation of the sciences is those disciplines whose empirical foundation is not clearly established and whose concepts remain points of analysistheir character is not seen as definite. The original statement that philosophy once encompassed all academic disciplines is not entirely accurate for mathematics XE "Mathematics"  was never considered to be a part of philosophywestern or eastern; and this is evidently because mathematical concepts were already quite definite when philosophical thought emerged while, at least in its axiomatic formulations, the empirical sources of mathematics had become minimally relevant to it. However, in the nineteenth century, when the basis of mathematics drew attention as a result of questions about the nature of fundamental concepts such as number and infinitesimal, the resulting study of the foundations of mathematics, which securedat least some ofthe concepts in question as well defined, had a definite philosophical character. This intersection of philosophy and mathematics occurred because some mathematical concepts were seen as ill defined. Similarly, the remoteness and indefiniteness of the concepts of modern physics have also been the occasion for reflection, for analysis of concepts, that may be seen as philosophical Another aspect of philosophy is its turn away from authority and dogma, especially religion XE "Faith:Religion" , to reflection and then, through sharpening of reflection, to reason. Although Thales 600 B.C. suggestion that the fundamental element of being is water is reflective rather than reasoned, it is a turn away from religion and the hidden world of the spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  for water is very much of this world. The metaphysics of Thales may be seen as containing precursors of reason and realism or empiricismthis thought is of course the result of interpretation. Still, the second aspect or characteristic of philosophy is its focus on ideas and concepts and, in relation to method, in its focus on reflection and reason In the recent period, philosophy continues to work within the course set by the foregoing characterssince there is neither intent nor need to review its history XE "History" , vast movements from Hellenism, from scholasticism, from the modern and recent eras are passed over. These characters are the focus on general issues of interest, focus in terms of ideas and conceptsespecially in those areas of thought where there is no secure empirical base and where concepts and conceptual systems have not acquired definite and systematic character and the use of methodsapproaches may be a better termthat emphasize reflection and reason In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries most philosophy in the west has been either analytic or continental. Analytic philosophy emerged in Germany and Britain, perhaps as a reaction to the grand metaphysical speculations of absolute idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism" , and was made possible by emerging analytic tools in formal and mathematical logic XE "Logic"  and in the works of thinkers such as Frege XE "Frege, Gottlob" , Russell XE "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William" , and Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig" . Wittgensteins influence XE "Influence"  is especially significant today. Wittgensteins early work included a systematic construction of a logical analysis of the world and it is inherent to that work that such an analysis should be possible. The terms of Wittgensteins early system were linguistic. Later, Wittgenstein rejected his earlier program and came to focus on different ways in which language XE "Language"  is used and to work on a variety of issues, many in philosophy of mind, employing as a primary tool the ways in which language is used in commonly talking of the subject of concernhe is thus regarded to have turned away from systematic philosophy. Although analytic philosophy XE "Philosophy:Analytic"  had roots in the continentin the work in logic, especially that of Fregeit flourished in the English speaking (and Scandinavian) countries, perhaps because of the rejection of idealism and the practical bent that philosophy had taken in the thought of Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill. These thoughts are of course somewhat speculative. An outcome is that analytic philosophy tends to focus away from grand and systematic concerns and on immediate and concrete problems by methods that emphasize analysis of terms and may be described as piece-meal In contrast to analytic philosophy XE "Philosophy:Analytic" , continental philosophy continued, with thinkers such as Husserl and Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin" , to focus on problems considered important if, perhaps, too difficult for reason to contemplate. Heidegger saw himself as standing in the tradition of Western Philosophy XE "Philosophy"  but as a critic of the prevalent habit of substance XE "Substance"  thinking. In its focus on Being XE "Being" , the present narrative derives some inspiration XE "Inspiration"  from Heideggers thoughtthe aspect of focus and the methods are of course significantly different and, as noted earlier, Heidegger retained an aspect of the habit of substance thinking in not explicitly rejecting determinism XE "Determinism"  which has been seen here as the twin of substance metaphysics. Heideggers philosophy retained a focus on the human conditionwhich was, significantly, Heideggers route to metaphysics. The focus on the human condition and the use of the human condition as inspiration and as a source of insight characterizes much of recent, i.e. late nineteenth to twenty-first century, continental philosophyespecially existentialism. Recent turns in continental philosophy may be seen as responses to a variety of nihilisms. One nihilism is the perceived failure of European ideals in the catastrophic wars of the twentieth century and, perhaps, in the loss of empire and the ascent of the New World. Another nihilism is the loss of faith in systematic thought since the breakdown of communism which was supposedly rooted in Marxism. A third nihilism, perhaps shared with analytic thought, is a loss of philosophical nerve under the rise of the institution of science XE "Science"  and under the harsh glare of scientific method. Finally there is the rise of populist philosophies which, though not intrinsically nihilistic, have negative evaluations of the tradition of philosophy as the philosophy of an oppressor. Although the characterization is not universal and not complete even its applicable range, the philosophy of the continent and related thought elsewhere, has, as a characteristic, a move away from both system and reason Although it has been suggested that recent western philosophy XE "Philosophy:Western"  may be seen as a loss of nerve in the face of a number of influences, both analytic and continental philosophy might respond that their course is a response to the grandiose pretensions of earlier thought In summary, there is no characterization of the practice of philosophy that is universal to all times and places. There has been no discussion of non-western thought but such discussion is not necessary to this negative conclusion. However, the self-evaluation of philosophy has clearly varied from that of, e.g., universal science XE "Science"  to a local narrative that has no pretension to reason or universality Discussion now turns to reflection on the nature of metaphysics and philosophy in light of the present narrative Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . When metaphysics is seen as the study of being-as-such rather than as a metaphysics of experience, it has been challenged with the question of its possibility. The source of this challenge is that there is no possible of being-in-itself. Various responses to this challenge are possible and these include Kant XE "Kant, Immanuel" s analysis of the world in terms of what structure it must have in order to make experience and its forms possible. In this narrative it has been seen that although there may be no faithful experience of being in all its details, there is experience of certain general contours of being, e.g. the facts of being and of all being and others, and this experience was used as the basis of an ultimate metaphysics of great power XE "Power"  and simplicity. The problem of the detailsof contextual or contingent XE "Contingent"  affairsremained and was addressed in Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of" . It was found that practical faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  obtains in context XE "Context" , that intuition can be extended through humor to cover all being, and less than full faithfulness may be seen equally as limit and opportunity. These words are, of course, a distant view of the powerful and universal perspective XE "Perspective"  of Foundation XE "Foundation"  In its broad contours, metaphysics may, therefore, be rationally seen as the discipline whose concern is with the outer limit XE "Philosophy:Discipline whose limits are the outer limits of being"  XE "Metaphysics:Discipline whose object is the outer limit(s) of being" s of being; whose method shows how to study those limitsand, of course, that the study is possible; and is revealed as a study of being of ultimate breadth and variety Philosophy XE "Philosophy" . In consequence, philosophy has no rational requirement to limit itself as laid out in modern academic thought. While metaphysics has concern with the outer limit XE "Philosophy:Discipline whose limits are the outer limits of being"  XE "Metaphysics:Discipline whose object is the outer limit(s) of being" s, philosophy may, in consequence, be recognized as the discipline whose limits are the outer limits of knowingunderstandingand being. In the extension to being, philosophy has the interpretation of actionwhether systematic or ad hoc at outset. While it is natural that there will be special foci within philosophydisciplines whose empirical foundation remains tenuous and whose concepts have not acquired definite characterthis restriction should concern the practice but not the concept of philosophy which should continue to encompass method and content of other disciplines and practices. One aspect of recent philosophy XE "Philosophy:Recent"  is the thought that philosophy cannot inform other disciplines. In the present view, no narrow discipline is seen as informing another; rather, there is sharing XE "Sharing"  of information and reasons across boundaries and levels of knowing and being that are intrinsically transactionaland somewhat arbitraryrather than impermeable boundaries and levels Problems in metaphysics The goals of this chapter are, first, to show that the developments of the narrative contain, simultaneously, the introduction of some new problems of metaphysics and their resolution and, second, to show that essentially all of the main problems from the history XE "History"  of metaphysics have been addressed and given resolution Some new problems of metaphysics and their resolution. The first problem is that of the possibility and construction of aperhaps themetaphysics that is ultimate in breadth and depth XE "Depth" . The possibility of metaphysics is not a new problem but its enhancement to include its construction and ultimate character are essentially new for, as already noted, while there have been intimations of the metaphysics of immanence in the history XE "History"  of thought, The metaphysics has been brought to an ultimate levelone that has been glimpsed in the history of thought e.g. by Leibniz XE "Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm" , Hume XE "Hume, David"  and Wittgenstein XE "Wittgenstein, Ludwig"  who saw some aspect of it but provided neither demonstration nor systematic development of a whole system nor development of a system of implications. Some aspects of the system have been imagined in Indian Philosophy XE "Philosophy:Indian" , especially in Vedanta XE "Vedanta" , but, here too, what has been seen is similarly though not identically deficient. In its development, i.e. in the first versions of the narrative, the metaphysics was thought of as transcending experience, and in recent versions there was a sense of its empirical character The second problem is that of showing XE "Proof:Showing"  that the metaphysics of immanence is a metaphysics of experience. There is extensive discussion of this issue in the narrative and it is therefore necessary here to make only a brief explanation of the empirical character of the metaphysics. Consider the universe which has been conceived in the narrative as all being. Recall the discussion of the meaning of the phrase Mt. Everest exists. It means that there is a concept of Mt. Everest that correspondsintentionallyto an actual object XE "Actual object"  Mt. Everest. It was observed, however, that the correspondence of some particular version of the concepte.g. the shape of the mountain or its constitution XE "Constitution"  in terms of rocks and ice or in terms of atomsmay be practically adequate for some purpose but cannot be, or is at least not normally known to be, perfectly faithful. However, perfect faithfulness XE "Faithfulness"  is what is required for the concept Mt. Everest to be part of a metaphysics. The same problem arises in the case of elementary objects such as an electron XE "Reference to the elementary particles of physics" . An objection now arises to the metaphysics of immanence as a metaphysics of experiencethat it is a valid metaphysics is otherwise demonstrated and is not in question in the immediate discussion. The objection is that if the concepts of elementary things are not given to be faithful to their objects, then, since the universe is compounded of all objects, how, since in the compounding the lacks of faithfulness are compounded, can the concept of the universe be faithful to the object universe? Putting the question in that way suggests its immediate answerif universe refers to universe-in-all-its-details then there is indeed a compounding of lack of faithfulness of the elements; however, if universe refers to universe-in-its-oneness there is no compounding of the lacks of faithfulness of the concepts of the elementary objects. There is an empirical sense of the universe-in-its-oneness that is suppressed by the exquisite but, relative to the object in question, distracting detail. I.e., in the concept of the universe as the universe-in-its-oneness, the lacks of faithfulness of the concepts of the elementary objectsmay be said tocancel one another The mistaken thought that there cannot be experience of all being has just been seen as an impediment to seeing the empirical character of the metaphysics of immanence. A related impediment is the mistaken thought that knowing must invariably be incremental, that it should radiate out from a center in this world A third problem is that of the development of a method adequate to development of the metaphysics of immanence and its application to, first, elaboration of the metaphysics as in Logic XE "Logic"  and meaning, Mind XE "Mind" , and Cosmology XE "Cosmology" ; second, to the theory of objects, i.e. to elucidating the duality of concepts and objects, i.e., to bringing a metaphysic of practical experience into the fold of the metaphysics of immanence; and, third, to the immediate or Human World. The method has been discussed extensively in the divisions Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  and Human World, and in the chapter Principles of thought XE "Thought, principles of"  and action Another problem conceived and resolved is the twin problem of substance XE "Substance"  and determinism XE "Determinism" . This problem, fully conceived only in the present version of the narrative, recognizes, with Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin" , that western metaphysics has suffered for 2000 years under the shadow of substance thinking, but that substance and determinism are duals and to fully eradicatethe habit ofsubstance thought, determinism must also be abandoned. The resolution of the problem and related problems such as the possibility of structure fromindeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism"  is accomplished in the narrative and is not repeated here. From this problem and its resolution flow the problems and resolutions of the fundamental problems of metaphysicsthe fundamental problem of metaphysicswhy there is something rather than nothing, the meaning and nature of the real XE "Real, the"  and of mindand matterand consciousness XE "Consciousness" , the mind-body problem and the problem of mental causation XE "Mental causation" , the questions of the nature of philosophy and the nature of metaphysics (recall that at the outer boundaries of philosophy and metaphysics are identical,) the problem of foundationswhether there is a non-relativist foundation without substance (such a foundation has here been shown,) the problem of variety and its resolution in the idea of Logic XE "Logic"  as the one law of the universe, the problem of the relative natures of particulars and universals XE "Universals"  such as properties and of concrete versus abstract object XE "Object:Abstract" s such as universals and values (there is a practical distinction but a real and uniform framework may and has been developed in which any distinction is artificial,) the problems of the distinctions between the contingent XE "Contingent"  and the necessary and of the empirical and the analytic (whose resolutions are tentatively similar to the resolution for particulars and universals,) the problem of the nature of human being XE "Human Being:Nature of"  and society XE "Society" whether we are isolated and marginal and limited accidents (we are not at all so but in the Theory XE "Theory"  of being, this derives from there continuity with the variety of beingespecially beings on earthand not from any uniqueness or superiority although the human mode of appreciation that may have positive and neurotic expression and is manifest e.g. in art and literature XE "Fiction:Literature"  appears to be distinct though without any meaning to any suggestion of superiority,) the problems of the status of traditional religious and mythic cosmologies, the problems of identity and of the relation of Atman XE "Atman"  and Brahman XE "Brahman"  (here shown logically to be identical in the global XE "Global or supra-coordinate description"  perspective XE "Perspective" ) Problems in metaphysics from antiquity to the present timeclassical, scholastic, modern and recent issues in metaphysics and Indian metaphysics. The purpose to the following catalog of problems is to show that the problems from the history XE "History"  of metaphysics have received either trivialization or solution in this narrativethe reader may wish to review the relevant portions of the narrative; and some of the more specialized concerns may require, for completeness, in the present version of the narrative, that the reader work out the details. Mention of types of metaphysical theory is included to displayso that the reader who has become acquainted with Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  can seethe placement or context XE "Context"  of the types within the Theory of Being XE "Being" . Mention of argument in metaphysics brings out the contributions of method from the present narrative Problems from classical metaphysics. Being XE "Being" , substance XE "Substance" , space XE "Time and space:Space" , time, nature of metaphysics, forms, categories, atomism XE "Atomism" , change and constancy. Scholastic metaphysics. Universals XE "Universals"  and particulars, free will, existence XE "Existence"  and nature of God XE "God" , soul XE "Identity:Soul"  and body. Modern metaphysics. Nature of the Real XE "Real, the" ; mind and matter; identity, substance, ontology; identity over time, personal identity; causation XE "Causation"  and laws; probabilistic causation; laws of nature; Matter XE "Matter" , space and time; objects as substances vs. mere bundles of properties; conception of spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual" ; nature and existence of the external world, what is Realreality of material things, organizing principles of nature. Recent metaphysics. Modality and counterfactuals; causation, regularity and counterfactuals; identity and necessity, Kripkeidentity statements are necessary but knowable only a posteriori. Being as journey XE "Journey"  or becoming; becoming as being. Indian metaphysics. There are points of contact between Indian thought and the Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of" . As a whole, Indian Philosophy XE "Philosophy:Indian"  recognizes the greatness of being (Brahman XE "Brahman" , the Real) and identity of the self (Atman XE "Atman" , soul) with it; it stresses the immediate in karma XE "Karma"  (work) and moksa (salvation;) these ideas focus on what may be important to the Individual XE "Individual"  and to transformation XE "Transformation" ; in A History XE "History"  of Transformation below there is consideration of some schools of Indian thought that focus on these concerns Types of metaphysical theory: Platonism XE "Platonism" relationship between the ideal and the immediate; Aristotelianismmetaphysics is immanent; Thomismreflection on everyday things and the everyday world reveals it as pointing beyond itself to God XE "God"  as its sustaining cause XE "Causation:Cause" . Cartesianismthe main problem of Descartes XE "Descartes, Ren"  was the divide between the determinate world of matter then being revealed by science XE "Science"  and the world of mind that was free of material constraint XE "Constraint"  that were brought together by Design as the sign of God; Idealism XE "Metaphysics:Idealism" ; Materialism XE "Metaphysics:Materialism" two modern responses to the problem of Cartesianism. Argument in Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" : metaphysics as an a priori science and as an empirical science; metaphysical argumentslogical Form XE "Form"  of metaphysical arguments; transcendental XE "Transcendental"  argument XE "Transcendental argument" stypical form and an example: q = knowledge is possible only if p = the world is according to the forms of intuition and q therefore p Further issues and problems of metaphysics addressed and resolved in this narrative. The following list makes explicit the contribution of the present narrative to resolution of the problems. The (seamless and integral) nature of Being XE "Being"  and knowledge (objects.) The fundamental problem of metaphysics, i.e. why absence of being must result in being (Why there is something rather than nothing!) The nature and destiny of the Individual XE "Individual"  (in the Theory XE "Theory"  of Identity XE "Identity:Theory of" ;) and the identity of the individual and all being. The Mind XE "Mind" -Matter XE "Matter"  problem i.e. that there is (after fundamentals have been addressed) no mind-matter XE "Mind:Mind-matter problem"  problem; and, more generally, the problem of substance XE "Substance"  i.e. that there are no ultimate substances. The problem of substance (detail)there are no ultimate (deterministic) uniform and unchanging substances; there is, at root, only the (indeterministic) Void XE "Void"  (absence of being) whose uniformity and constancy or otherwise are not defined into but derived from its constitution XE "Constitution"  (concept.) Some problems of intentionality XE "Intentionality"  and mental causation XE "Mental causation" . Identification and resolution of the conceptually illicit but practically useful distinction between experience on the one hand and attitude and action on the other. The void is the source of All Being XE "All Being" ; the concept of the void founds explanation of all being that terminates without regress, eliminates substance, and permits non relativist philosophy without substance. The meaning and nature of the Real XE "Real, the" . The nature of consciousness XE "Consciousness" . The nature of Ethics and its relation to Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics" . The necessity of Metaphysics on Ethical grounds (rejection of Metaphysics on Ethical grounds is also conceivable; however, the argument here is for necessity. Further, a rejection of metaphysics on purely ethical grounds would miss the essence of the argument as an inclusive rather than an exclusive one.) The Real nature of Ethical concerns i.e. that issues of freedom are not peripheral but central to being (whose constitution may be seen as freedom in interaction with necessity.) That the concepts of Knowledge and Ethics (Morals XE "Morals" ) are not distinctthat knowledge is other than usually conceived or that it is of lesser value than usually thought (though not devoid of value altogetherits value would retain its practical but not its fundamental aspect.) The nature of human being XE "Human Being:Nature of"  and society XE "Society"  A system of human knowledge The discoveries in metaphysics of this essay make possible the following system that corresponds approximately to the system of modern academic disciplines The intent is to reveal how the Theory XE "Theory"  of being and related topics make the enhancements possible and to allow the reader to see how the system may fit rationally and systematically within the framework of the present narrative (A) Symbols and Knowledge 0a. Symbols and signs; semioticsthe study of signs and sign behavior. Symbolic Systems including language XE "Language" , logic XE "Logic" , and mathematics XE "Mathematics" . 0b. The Humanities and Philosophy XE "Philosophy" ; Study of Science XE "Science"  and History XE "History" . (B) The Universe XE "Universe"  1a. Metaphysics XE "Metaphysics"  and general cosmology XE "Cosmology:General" , nature and varieties of Being XE "Being" , which includes Logic, Value XE "Value"  or ethics XE "Morals:Ethics"  and aesthetics XE "Aesthetics" , epistemology XE "Knowledge:Epistemology" ; nature and varieties of Knowledge, where, note, Belief is fundamental and the varieties of belief include Faith XE "Faith"  as (primarily) Belief-Action XE "Action" , Knowledge as Belief-Justification; 1b. Physical science, nature, behavior of energy and varieties of force and material object including physics, physical cosmology, and chemistry; 2. Geology; 3. Biology, life XE "Life" its nature and variety and origins of life and variety; Medicine; 4. Mind XE "Mind"  as the study of psyche XE "Psyche"  in its integration XE "Integration"  and its functions; nature of mind; 5. Society, nature, institutions (groups) and change and aspects including culture (institution of knowledge,) economics XE "Economics" , political science and philosophy (and Law;) and 6. History. (C) Artifact 7. Art, nature and varieties of (literature XE "Fiction:Literature" , music, painting;) 8. Technology (elements: energy, tools and machines and fields: agriculture, transportation, information, earth and space XE "Time and space:Space"  exploration; Engineering; and 9. Faith, literal XE "Literal"  and nature and varieties of non literal meaning and non meaning function XE "Meaning function of an article of faith or religion" s; religion XE "Faith:Religion" , its nature and varieties: the religions of the world throughout history. Notethis system is an adaptation, in light of Theory XE "Theory"  of being, of the current edition of Encyclopedia Britannica Transformation Introduction Occasion. Transformation is intrinsic to being. Additionally, transformation XE "Transformation"  is necessary to completion of ideas Aims. (1) Engagement in realizationof the ultimate working out of the highest ideal XE "Highest ideal, the" . (2) Illustration of the Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of" . (3) Work out a minimal and covering sequence or system of actions or experiments toward the goal of realization. (3) Contribute to the history XE "History"  of transformation XE "Transformation" from Theory of Being XE "Being" , develop approaches / modify historical approaches to transformation History XE "History"  of transformation XE "Transformation"  Western systems. Greek ideal; psychoanalysis and developmentdeterministic and indeterministic; mystics and saints Shamanic systems and journey XE "Journey" ; Black Elk, Weston La Barre, Mircae Eliade Indian systems. Veda and Upanishad; Bhagavad-GitaRaja, Gana, Karma XE "Karma" , Bhakti yoga; Samkhya, Yoga; Vedanta XE "Vedanta"  Basis and theory of transformation XE "Transformation"  Discipline; crises and catalysts Right ideas, action, ways and ends Projectscumulative change / transformation XE "Transformation"  in identity System of experiments Placehome, work, society XE "Society" , nature, universe Modeideas; being and identity; society XE "Society" ; conceptual and physical Experiments in ideasa continuation of the ideas of Foundation XE "Foundation" , Ideas, and Basis and theory of transformation XE "Transformation" and a search for other elements of ideas and paradigms Experiments in transformation XE "Transformation"  of being and identityideas and transformation; experiencecultures, institutions, places, roles; society XE "Society" , charisma XE "Charisma"  and influence XE "Influence" ; experiment XE "Experiment"  and conceptual design for, life XE "Life" , mind and intelligence; nature and dynamics of identityidentity of self i.e. Atman XE "Atman" , other and ultimate being or Brahman XE "Brahman" : seeing or recognizing and being or realizingbridge from present to the ultimate; variety of experiments, ways and paradigms Social experiments in charisma XE "Charisma" transformation XE "Transformation"  within groups and society XE "Society" design versus (and) immersion Experiments in forms and degrees of life XE "Life" , mind, and intelligenceexperiment XE "Experiment"  and evolution, physical and conceptual design, design and immersion Transformation so far. Designs Universal knowledge Includes the special case Atman XE "Atman"  = Brahman XE "Brahman" , through both analysis and perception. Analysis is complete as in the Theories of Being XE "Being"  and of Identity XE "Identity" . They had success in perception of Identity through extended exertion and rhythm in natural environments. Plans. In the next step, they would continue experiments in perception through the means described above Personality and influence XE "Influence"  They had some success in transformation XE "Transformation"  of personality XE "Personality"  through cultivation of ends and Morals XE "Morals"  over time. Social influence XE "Influence"  was perhaps their weakest area. Plans. Possibilities include work and general action. In work: design for influence; risk and dynamics. In general action: moral design for influence; cultivation of charisma XE "Charisma" ; sharing XE "Sharing" ; risk (action for influence) and dynamics; shared formal Commitment XE "Commitment"  perhaps in an institutional setting, existing or separately established toward developing and acting on the designs and plans Arching XE "Arching"  from the immediate to the ultimate Assessment: the foregoing includes an implicit assessment and plans; the goal is known, the territory is partially laid out in the ideas above. Plans: Three doors to the ultimate have been recognized: being-in-the-ultimate, being-in-knowledge-of-the-ultimate, and death. The task: undertake the arching XE "Arching" -journey XE "Journey" , discover, and open other doors Material design Security. Minimize; finances and needs; arrangement and schedule; professional development and contacts. Beyond securityrelationships / people, commitment XE "Commitment"  and freedom, realization Discipline and presence Experimentsplace Support. Facilities and resources. Peopleintrinsic-ideas, economic-material-finance and grants, political-advertisement The Future The narrative suggests topics for further study andor clarification. These topics are listed in Refining the ideas. The way ahead talks of the future of the journey XE "Journey"  Refining the ideas Also seeSystem of experiments General. The entire systemincluding the ambitions and underlying valuesis subject to criticism and analysis, imaginative construction, elaboration, objection, rejection and affirmation, enhancement of depth XE "Depth"  and coherence; which may be enhanced by axiomatic treatment. Every topic, concept and assertion is similarly capable of refinement and review, elaboration and improved relationsto the whole and to the other topics. Central conceptsbeing, experience and sentience XE "Mind:Sentience" , void, the fundamental principle of being, absolute indeterminism XE "Determinism:Indeterminism" , the normal, form, the object, identity, logic XE "Logic" , substance XE "Substance" whose interest is negative, logic, mind, faith and freedom. The nature and existence XE "Existence"  of experience and its formsthe concept, of the universe, of difference and changeof extension and duration, of domain and complement, of the void, and of the object is of special importance The concept of the class of consistent concepts presents a problem. What is that class? How is it formed? What variety may it reveal? To what constraints is it subject? What do the constraints reveal for variety and for dynamics? Ideas. Logic XE "Logic"  and logics XE "Logic:Logics" . Logic as the theory of proper descriptions. Reference XE "Meaning:Reference"  as crucial to logic. Development of logics. Logic and general cosmology XE "Cosmology:General"  Is the requirement of proper reference necessary to validity in Logic XE "Logic"  and Grammar? Since various semantic paradoxes (Russell XE "Russell, Bertrand Arthur William" ) and set-theoretic paradoxes (Zermelo-Fraenkel-Skolem and von Neumann-Bernays-Gdel XE "Gdel, Kurt" ) have been resolved by non-referential artifacts, the requirement of proper reference may be unnecessary. It remains true that the requirement of reference may have deep consequences; and these consequences may reveal the artifactual approach to consistency XE "Consistency"  to have an ad-hoc character Modern physics and biology. Space XE "Time and space:Space" , Time XE "Time and space:Time" , and Manifest Being XE "Being" . Relativistic theory of matter and fields, quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  theory and Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  The analytic investigation of the extension of being, e.g. extension and duration or spatial and temporal extension, and coordinate XE "Coordinate or local description"  possibilities A quantum XE "Theories of physics:Quantum theories"  or genetic theory of laws. One characterization of the development of physics is the introduction of dynamics. The theory of mechanics before Galileo and Newton XE "Newton, Isaac"  was essentially a theory of static systems. Newtonian mechanics was dynamic but did not, e.g., include a truly internal dynamic of particles or any dynamic of their mutability, i.e., their creation and destruction in interaction with energysome aspects of these dynamics are included in the relativistic quantum theories of fields. Newtons mechanics did not include a dynamic of space XE "Time and space:Space"  and timethe general theory of relativity introduces space and time into the dynamic. In modern physics, the laws themselves are largely regarded as staticprogress is progress toward discovery of eternal static laws of dynamic systems. However, it has been seen that laws and patterns are and must be immanent in beingand that the laws read of this cosmological system cannot be universal in extension or duration. It therefore follows that the laws that are read as static must themselves be part of the dynamic. The metaphysics of immanence lends itself to a dynamic that includes both local objects and laws or behavior and there is a possibility that such a dynamic will represent progress beyond modern physical science XE "Science"  toward a final theory. It certainly appears that exclusion XE "Exclusion"  of the laws from dynamics will be a necessary block to progress or development of physical theory Human World. Elaboration. Co-development of Theories of being and of human being; relation to Heidegger XE "Heidegger, Martin" s approach. Faith XE "Faith"  and religion XE "Faith:Religion" concepts and prospects. A principled approach to personality XE "Personality"  Language XE "Language" , grammatical forms, emotion XE "Emotion"  and will. The question of the universality of the standard subject-predicate form. Is there a fixed set of grammatical forms? The possibility of primal forms e.g. a process form that is prior to the subject-predicate form in the sense that subject-predicate form may be one among a number of crystallizations within the primal form. Do emotion and will have objects? Social world. Study and development of dynamics of or in society XE "Society"  and social systems  LINK Word.Document.8 "C:\\My Documents\\1. World and Being\\realization\\being-elements\\Journey in Being-New World-essence-print.doc" OLE_LINK2 \a \h \* MERGEFORMAT Experiments in ideasa continuation of the ideas of Foundation XE "Foundation" , Ideas, and Basis and theory of transformation XE "Transformation" and a search for other elements of ideas and paradigms Experiments in transformation XE "Transformation"  of being and identityideas and transformation; experiencecultures, institutions, places, roles; society XE "Society" , charisma XE "Charisma"  and influence XE "Influence" ; experiment XE "Experiment"  and conceptual design for, life XE "Life" , mind and intelligence; nature and dynamics of identityidentity of self i.e. Atman XE "Atman" , other and ultimate being or Brahman XE "Brahman" : seeing or recognizing and being or realizingbridge from present to the ultimate; variety of experiments, ways and paradigms Social experiments in charisma XE "Charisma" transformation XE "Transformation"  within groups and society XE "Society" design versus (and) immersion Experiments in forms and degrees of life XE "Life" , mind, and intelligenceexperiment XE "Experiment"  and evolution, physical and conceptual design, design and immersion Narrative form. Goalspublication, introducing the ideas, exposing the power XE "Power"  of the system, overcoming resistance to / unfamiliarity with the ideas, transition to experimental phase. Forms: linearnarrative and discursive; personal versus impersonal; essential; axiomatic; literary, biographical, poetic, dialog, artistic and dramatic forms; mixed. In a literary form a cast may be introduced; rolesa main character who is ideal in spirit XE "Substance:Spirit, spiritual"  though real in action, a co-adventurer and love, a critic, a reactionary, a rugged friend; a set of scenesuniversity, work, wilderness, foreign landor phases of the story XE "Fiction:Story"  and their local characters. Presentational form and holismthe concepts The way ahead There are two ambitions for the future The first ambition is a continuation of the path so far This will include criticism and improvements of the ideas and foundationthe Theory XE "Theory"  of Being XE "Being:Theory of"  and related developments. It would emphasize transformation XE "Transformation" , inviting others to share in the process, and application (social XE "Society" ; and, perhaps, a development of ideas or theory and practice in manifestation of life XE "Life"  and intelligent beings) Although they had thought, transformation XE "Transformation"  will be the final way, they felt something further, perhaps an admission of finitude (if only in this form,) perhaps an expression of the infinite in the finite A second ambition and hope is for the experience of a time of Being XE "Being"  over becoming, of perception over thought Experience XE "Experience" , perhaps, of the infinite in the finite, of this world Index  INDEX \c "2" \z "1033"  Achievement, exceptional, 47 Action, 35, 41, 47, 49, 52, 61 Actual object, 21, 34, 37, 60 Aesthetics, 16, 61 All Being, 61 Annihilation, 23, 26, 32, 41 Arching, 62 Atman, 47, 55, 61, 62, 63 Human being as, 47 Atomism, 27, 28, 61 Attachment, 32 Attributes, 34, 38, 39, 41 Being, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 38, 43, 46, 52, 59, 61, 62, 63 Theory of, 1, 4, 5, 19, 26, 43, 47, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63 Bonding, 55 Brahman, 32, 40, 47, 55, 61, 62, 63 Brentano, Franz, 32 Causation, 10, 24, 25, 26, 40, 41, 42, 46, 61 Cause, 26, 46, 51, 61 Charisma, 46, 47, 62, 63 Choice, 11, 35, 43, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51 Civilization, 44, 52, 56 Cognition, 10, 34, 46, 47, 49, 52 Cognitive science, 8 Commitment, 10, 14, 49, 53, 56, 58, 62 Concept, 8, 46 Consciousness, 9, 12, 14, 38, 39, 43, 44, 46, 60, 61 Apparent on-off character of, 39 Awareness, 19, 21, 38, 39, 44, 46, 47, 52, 58 Is not awareness of awareness, 39 Unity of, 45 Consistency, 21, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 62 Constitution, 7, 22, 52, 55, 60, 61 Constraint, 15, 46, 61 Context, 3, 4, 11, 12, 16, 21, 22, 28, 31, 34, 38, 40, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 55, 60, 61 Contingent, 4, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 25, 28, 29, 31, 36, 42, 43, 45, 48, 58, 60 Coordinate or local description, 7, 42, 62 Cosmology, 1, 3, 5, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26, 28, 31, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 43, 55, 60 General, 15, 30, 40, 41, 43, 61, 62 Local, 3, 25, 40, 41 Creation, 41 Deduction, 30, 35, 36, 37 Definition, 4, 6, 7, 13, 16, 23, 27, 34, 38, 44, 46, 48, 51, 54 Depth, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 14, 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 40, 60, 62 Descartes, Ren, 61 Descriptions, system of consistent, 23 Determinism, 6, 17, 23, 24, 30, 31, 32, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 59, 60 Indeterminism, 4, 23, 24, 25, 27, 32, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 60, 62 Economics, 48, 51, 54, 55, 61 Education, 3, 47, 48, 51, 52, 58 Einstein, Albert, 28, 43, 44 Emotion, 10, 13, 25, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 52, 63, 69 Higher Emotion, 46 Entity, 8, 19, 22, 24, 27, 28, 33, 34, 38, 40, 41, 47 Evil, 49 Evolution, Theory of, 17 Excluded middle, principle of, 22 Exclusion, 3, 13, 52, 55, 63 Existence, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 41, 43, 47, 48, 49, 55, 58, 61, 62 Experience, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 38, 39, 40, 46, 47, 63 Experiment, 10, 11, 16, 18, 41, 53, 58, 62, 63 Fact, 41 Faith, 1, 4, 5, 20, 30, 31, 35, 48, 52, 61, 63 Doubt, 4, 5, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 22, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 43, 47, 53, 54, 56, 58 Faith and doubt, 53 Religion, 4, 19, 23, 27, 31, 44, 47, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 63 Faithfulness, 9, 10, 11, 14, 20, 33, 34, 53, 60 Feasibility, 48, 50, 52, 58 Feeling, 13, 14, 15, 21, 25, 30, 32, 38, 39, 45, 49, 50, 53, 69 Fiction, 22, 23, 40, 41 Legend, 56 Literature, 9, 12, 16, 19, 23, 32, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61 Myth, 4, 19, 23, 40, 48, 55, 56 Story, 27, 40, 58, 63 Form, 15, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 32, 37, 40, 42, 46, 61 Dynamic, 42, 45 Foundation, 1, 3, 4, 5, 58, 60, 62, 63 Frege, Gottlob, 11, 37, 38, 59 Global or supra-coordinate description, 7, 16, 37, 40, 42, 43, 48, 51, 56, 61 God, 26, 41, 43, 44, 61 Gdel, Kurt, 36, 62 Good, the, 49, 50, 52 Growth, 9, 12, 46, 47 Heidegger, Martin, 6, 15, 23, 24, 59, 60, 63 Highest ideal, the, 52, 61 History, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 27, 34, 44, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62 Human Being, 1, 5, 15, 18, 25, 29, 30, 33, 34, 40, 44, 45, 47, 48, 53, 54 Nature of, 17, 60, 61 Hume, David, 7, 18, 23, 60 Hypothesis, 6, 36 Hypothetical, 37 Identity, 28, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 55, 62 Sameness, 40 Soul, 61 Theory of, 61 Individual, 40, 47, 61 Induction, 22, 35, 37 Influence, 3, 12, 35, 37, 47, 55, 56, 59, 62, 63 Inspiration, 4, 11, 23, 25, 41, 47, 59, 69 Integration, 29, 30, 45, 46, 47, 54, 61 Intentionality, 8, 9, 14, 45, 61 Intuition in the sense of Kant Categories, 35, 41, 46 Journey, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 19, 26, 43, 46, 47, 52, 53, 55, 58, 61, 62, 69 Kant, Immanuel, 4, 10, 15, 16, 30, 33, 46, 59 Karma, 41, 61, 62 Knowledge Epistemology, 4, 15, 31, 61 Kuhn, Thomas, 12, 53 Language, 4, 7, 9, 11, 12, 23, 27, 36, 38, 39, 46, 47, 55, 59, 61, 63 Lateral analysis of the meanings of concepts, 11 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 18, 23, 60 Life, 11, 12, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 35, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 61, 62, 63, 69 Limit, 41 Literal, 4, 56, 61 Logic, 1, 4, 5, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 50, 53, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 Logics, 18, 35, 36, 37, 41, 62 Logos, 36, 41 Mathematics, 4, 11, 27, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 45, 53, 59, 61, 69 Foundations Logicism, 37 Matter, 28, 32, 61 Meaning, 11, 16, 18, 26, 33, 36, 38, 53 Connotation, 8, 20, 38, 53, 54, 55 Denotation, 38 Intension, 38 Reference, 62 Sense, 11, 34, 36, 38 Meaning function of an article of faith or religion, 55, 56, 61 Mechanism, 26, 27, 28, 40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 50 Meinong, Alexius, 10 Memory, 9, 33, 35, 43, 45, 46 Mental causation, 60, 61 Metaphysics, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 31, 34, 35, 38, 40, 43, 44, 47, 51, 53, 55, 59, 61 Discipline whose object is the outer limit(s) of being, 60 Idealism, 6, 13, 18, 24, 52, 58, 59, 61 Materialism, 6, 13, 14, 18, 24, 38, 61 of Immanence, 21 Voidism, 23, 24 Mind, 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16, 18, 25, 26, 28, 32, 33, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 60, 61 Manifest, 38 Mind-matter problem, 25, 61 Primal, 43 Sentience, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28, 42, 52, 62 Modality, 37 Actuality, 21, 26, 34, 40 Impossibility, 23 Necessity, 31, 40, 58 Morals, 41, 51, 61, 62 Ethics, 4, 16, 35, 41, 43, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 61 Newton, Isaac, 33, 43, 62 Normal, 40, 58 Probability, 27, 42, 45, 52 Number, 34 Object, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 46, 51, 53 Absolute, 33, 35 Abstract, 8, 15, 16, 18, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 53, 60 Concept-object, 10, 33 Concrete, 8, 15, 33, 36, 38, 41 Object constancy, 45 Objectivity, 33, 34, 35, 41, 43, 53 Originality - creative power in being and mind, 46, 58 Novelty, 39, 44, 45 Paradigm, 12, 13 Paradox, 9, 10, 14, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 35, 36, 37, 51, 53 Pattern, 3, 15, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 32, 34, 37, 40, 45, 54 Percept, 9, 12, 15, 21, 46 Personality, 46, 47, 54, 62, 63 Perspective, 10, 18, 25, 32, 40, 42, 43, 53, 60, 61 Philosophy, 1, 6, 7, 20, 58, 59, 60, 61 Analytic, 3, 19, 59 Discipline whose limits are the outer limits of being, 60 Indian, 18, 60, 61 Modern, 43 Recent, 3, 8, 60 Scholastic, 43 Western, 4, 59 Plato, 6, 19, 42, 50 Platonism, 3, 61 There is no Platonic world, 3, 26, 32, 37 Political realism, 50, 52 Politics, 48, 51, 55, 56 Power, 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 37, 48, 55, 57, 60, 63 Precision, 18, 31, 33, 43 Proof, 5, 9, 12, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 28, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 45, 46 Showing, 12, 19, 27, 32, 33, 34, 53, 60 Psyche, 8, 10, 35, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 49, 51, 54, 55, 56, 58, 61 Psychology, 5, 27, 43, 56 Real, the, 14, 15, 19, 22, 24, 28, 33, 35, 39, 41, 47, 51, 52, 56, 60, 61 Recurrence, 40, 41 Reference to the elementary particles of physics, 60 Reflexivity, 46, 58 Russell, Bertrand Arthur William, 15, 36, 37, 59, 62 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 15, 16, 46 Science, 4, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 47, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 62 Scripture, reference to traditional, 54 Secularism, 55 Sharing, 60, 62 Society, 5, 10, 34, 35, 37, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 53, 55, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63 Spinoza, Benedict de, 39 Stability, 8, 11, 12, 26, 35, 42, 49, 51 Substance, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 17, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 51, 52, 59, 60, 61, 62 Spirit, spiritual, 6, 19, 27, 37, 45, 50, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 63 Symbol, 9, 10, 15, 16, 44, 46, 53 Symmetry, 22, 26, 32, 42 Tautology, 22, 46 Thales of Miletus, 6 Theories of physics, 43 Newtonian mechanics, 10, 33 Quantum theories, 9, 13, 22, 27, 28, 29, 37, 42, 44, 51, 53, 62 Theory, 1, 4, 5, 19, 26, 28, 35, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 47, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63 Theory of Mechanisms of Essential Change Normal mechanism, 26, 27, 28 Thought, principles of, 1, 31, 58, 60 Time and space Space, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 22, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 54, 61, 62 Time, 43, 46, 62 Transcendental, 22, 30, 34, 35, 61 Transcendental argument, 35, 61 Transformation, 1, 3, 4, 5, 16, 19, 20, 26, 30, 43, 50, 53, 54, 58, 61, 62, 63, 69 Truth, 3, 4, 14, 18, 19, 23, 31, 35, 36, 41, 42, 47, 53, 54, 56 Unconscious, the, 39, 44, 46 Understanding, 3, 5, 6, 43, 52 Universals, 34, 35, 41, 60, 61 Universe, 23, 41, 61 Value, 46, 52, 61 Variety, 41 Vedanta, 18, 60, 62 Void, 15, 17, 24, 40, 61 Voidism, 23, 24 War and peace, 1, 5, 48, 51, 52 Whitehead, Alfred North, 38 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 3, 10, 11, 15, 18, 23, 36, 37, 38, 59, 60  The author The critical appreciation of my ideas would be rewarding. However, it is not my first or driving ambition to be a thinker or, specifically, a philosopher. Though significant, ideas are not sufficient. I know this by looking at my life XE "Life"  and thought What I have sought is to be present to the universethe world and its people, places, events and possibilities. I have sought adventure and two forms of adventure are adventures in ideas and in transformation XE "Transformation"  I have sought the career path, but as achievement and its direct and peripheral enjoymentsrecreationthat life XE "Life"  has been insufficient Enjoyment of the moment is important. Thought, transformation XE "Transformation" , and writing would not be undertaken without enjoyment. Enjoyment is not peripheral to my endeavorit indicates to me that I am engaged with a creative adventure. My thought is not intended to be serious for it serves a purposethe adventure in understanding and transformationthat is its inspiration XE "Inspiration"  and guide Discipline and dedication are important as wellI am not a stranger to sacrifice, even of enjoyment, when occasionally necessary to a greater end. There is a delicate balance between moments and ends The enjoyment and appreciation is intense at times. The years of effort are a measure of a slow burnsimmering emotion XE "Emotion" that is always there. These simple but wonderful rewards have sustained my endeavor Even though it is an adventure, my relation to the journey XE "Journey"  has ambivalence. I wonder if, in my ambitionin my estimation of the possible, I deceive myself. When moments of joy seem to be more than enough and when I revel in perception of the universe and in good friendship over thought, I wonder at the effort I wonder about the elaboration of ideas; even though its development was not so, I know that the essential core is simple. Perhaps I should live a life XE "Life"  that emphasizes perceptionlooking at changing skies, being in the hills, feeling XE "Feeling"  wind and rain, simple friendship Doubt reflects uncertainty and endeavor. It is goodperhaps necessary to a journey XE "Journey"  I grew up in India. My present home is in Northern California. My daughter, Carissa, lives in Texas. My brother and sister-in-law, Robin and Susan, live in London My mother was British, my father Indian. My mother taught enjoyment by example; my father instilled discipline by discipline. I think, though, that I am, significantly, the architect of my own enjoyment and discipline and their limits I love people, ideas and nature. There is wonder in ideas as a key to the universe and wonder in experience as binding to the present. If an idea seems to be significant, I attempt to pursue it to its ultimate formor until it is revealed to lack significance I have hiked in New York, Texas, Mexico, New Mexico, Colorado, and California and traveled in India, Britain, the United States, Canada and Mexico. Years ago I hiked many times in Barranca del Cobre, Chihuahua, Mexico; the Barrancas and their magic and people remain inspiring At high school and college, I participated in sports. I represented my university in athletics, i.e., track and field. Exercise feels healthymost of all I enjoy running on Pacific beaches and amid dunes and grass. I co-started and ran all phases of a business preparing and serving Indian food. I have worked at a psychiatric hospital I studied at the Indian Institute of TechnologyKharagpur and University of Delaware. I have a PhD and about ten further years of research in engineering and applied mathematics XE "Mathematics"  my research has been published in respected technical journals I taught at undergraduate and graduate levels and have given advanced seminars to university faculty and at conferences. I served on the faculty at Rochester Institute of Technology, University of Delaware, University of TexasAustin, California State UniversityHumboldt     PAGE 1 PAGE 3 There is absence of being There is being 1. Define the void as the complement of the universe in itself 2. If the void exists, it contains no Objectno Form or Pattern or Law 3. The universe is a domain and therefore it has a complement that exists. Since, from item 1, the complement of the universe is the void, the void exists. Combining this with item 2, it follows that: The void exists and contains no Objectno Form or Pattern or Law Details next page There is Experience Without difference there can be no experience of difference The complement of a domain A, relative to domain B, is what is in B but not A. 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Anil Mitrai7absolute impossibility proof, absolute object, abstract object, academic philosophy, action, actual, actual object, actual transformation, actuality, adaptation, aesthetics, Albert Einstein, Alexius Meinong, Alfred North Whitehead, Alfred Russell Wallace, all being, Amartya Sen, ambition, analytic philosophy, annihilation, arching, Aristotle, Arthur Schopenhauer, atman, atomism, attachment, attitude, attributes, awareness, awareness of awareness, axioms and methods of proof, being, Benedict de Spinoza, Bertrand Russell, binding problem, bonding, bound icon and symbol, Brahman, Brentano, bridging, Brouwer, Carl Gustav Jung, Cartesian, categories of intuition, causation, cause, charisma, Charles Darwin, choice, civilization, cognition, cognitive science, commitment, complete minimal set, concept, concept object, concrete object, connotation, consciousness, consistency, constitution, constraint, context, continental philosophy, contingent, coordinate, cosmological variety, cosmology, creation, David Hilbert, David Hume, deduction, definition, Democritus, denotation, depth, designated function, determinism, determinism and the unconscious, divides, dominant time, doubt, drive, dynamic form, dynamics of being, east, economics, education, Edward Burnett Tylor, electromagnetism, elimination of substance, emotion, entity, epistemology, ethics, ethics and objectivity, evil, exceptional achievement, exclusion, existence, existence as, experience, experiment, extension, extrapolation to the ultimate, fact, faith, faith and doubt, faithfulness, fantasy, feasibility, feasible, feeling, fiction, form, formal commitment, formalism, formlessness, foundation, foundationalism, free icon and symbol, freedom of will, fundamental principle of the Theory of Being, general cosmology, George Moore, global, God, Good, Gottfried Leibniz, Gottlob Frege, Greek philosophy, group bonding, group project, growth, Hans Reichenbach, Hegel , Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincar, higher emotion, history, human being, hypothesis, idealism, identity, immanence, immanent, Immanuel Kant, impossibility, indeterminism, Indian Philosophy, individual, induction, influence, inspiration, integration, intension, intentionality, intuition, intuitionism, Isaac Newton, journey, Karl Popper, karma, Kurt Gdel, language, lateral, legend, life, limit, literal, literature, local cosmology, logic, logic and law, logicism, logics, logos, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, materialism, mathematics, matter, Max Weber, meaning, meaning function, mechanism, memory, mental causation, mental function, metaphysics, metaphysics of absence, metaphysics of immanence, mind, modality, modern philosophy, morals, more than mere being, multiple times, myth, nature of human being, Necessity, necessity of indeterminism, neoteny, Newtonian Mechanics, non existent object, normal, normal mechanism, novelty, number, object, object constancy, objecthood, objectivity, ontological commitment, ordinary language analysis, origin of complexity, originality, originality, outer limit, outer limit, paradigm, paradox, partial object, particular, pattern, Paul Dirac, percept, personality, perspective, phenomenal concept of mind, phenomenalism, philosophy, piecemeal, Plato, Platonic world, Platonism, political realism, politics, possibility, power, precision, primal mind, principle of non contradiction, principle of the excluded middle, principles of thought, probability, probability of incremental change, proof, psyche, psychological concept of mind, psychology, quantum, real, recent philosophy, recurrence, reference, reference and paradox, reflexivity, relativistic theory of gravitation, religion, Ren Descartes, Roger Bacon, sameness, scholastic philosophy, science, secularism, sense, sense of history, sentience, shared commitment, sharing, showing, Sigmund Freud, significance in being, social, Socrates, soul, space, special theory of relativity, spirit, stability, story, substance, supervenience, symbol, symmetry, system of consistent description, system of human knowledge, tautology, Thales of Miletus, the good, the highest ideal, the real, theories of physics, theory, theory of being, theory of depth, theory of evolution, theory of identity, theory of mechanisms, theory of possibility, theory of variety, Thomas Kuhn, Thomas Nagel, time, time-space, transcendental, transcendental argument, transformation, truth, unconscious, understanding, unity of consciousness, universal law, universals, universe, value, variety, virtual transformation, voice, void, voidism, war and peace, west, western philosophy, what it is like, Willard van Orman Quine, William of Ockhambsojourney in being simple.dotANIL MITRA PHDg79LMicrosoft Word 10.0@@Ge@e@pάCS?(6framesversions/Journey in Being-New World-frames.htmlx5 (http://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html e)..\..\..\Journey in Being-New World.html5c/Journey in Being-New World-substance-temp.html  FMicrosoft Word Document 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